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DAIRY FARMING 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO - DALLAS 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



DAIRY FARMING 



BY 



C. H. ECKLES, D.Sc. 

PROFESSOR OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY 
OF MISSOURI 

AND 

G. F. WARREN, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR OF FARM MANAGEMENT, NEW YORK STATE 

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, CORNELL 

UNIVERSITY 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1916 

All rights reserved 









COPYBIGHT, 1916, 

Bt the macmillan company. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1916. 




DEC -7 1316 



NnriuaotJ ^resa 

J. 8. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



C1A4467^2 



INTRODUCTION 

Agriculture now has a recognized place in both, high 
schools and colleges. If this progress in scientific study is 
to continue, it is necessary that the instruction be kept on an 
equal educational basis with all other subjects. The courses 
in agriculture must stand for good, solid work such as is typi- 
cal of the entire farming industry. There is a need for text- 
books that give the basic principles of the subject briefly 
without being superficial. To help in meeting this need a 
series of books, to be known as the Farm Series, is being 
prepared. The aim of each book will be to discuss the phases 
of its subject that. are of most importance to the farmer; that 
is, to answer the farmer's questions, and to make these 
answers in the form of underlying principles rather than as 
rules. The positive advice or rules that may work in one 
region may be absolutely wrong in another region, or at an- 
other time in the same region. If one understands the prin- 
ciples involved, he will be better able to change his practice 
to meet the ever-changing conditions. Statements are often 
made that a farmer shauld_ raise all his cows, that he should 
produce winter milk, that he should build a silo. Such rules 
have no educational value and usually have no practical value. 
The real problem depends on the factors involved in each case. 
For instance a few of the points that must be considered in 
deciding whether or not to build a silo are the adaptation of 



vi INTRODUCTION 

the farm to corn production, the price of hay, the size of the 
herd, the price of milk, whether winter or summer dairying 
is followed, the amount of money available. No rule can be 
made that will include all these points, for many of them may 
be changed next year. 

It is titting that the lirst book of the series should deal with 
what is probably the most important source of income of 
American farmers, — dairy farming. 

As population increases we must of necessity depend more 
on dairy products and less on beef cattle. The best methods 
of producing beef are very different from the best methods of 
producing milk. Many farmers who once kept beef cattle are 
changing to dairying. For such farmers a study of dairying 
is of particular importance because it will bring to them in- 
formation that has been worked out by long experience in 
dairy regions. Even in the old established dairy regions the 
changes in prices of land, feed, labor, and dairy products and 
the increasing importance of manure for growing cash crops, 
make a study of the principles of dairy farming of prime 
importance. 

The success of the teacher will depend in large measure on 
the extent to which the conditions in the community are 
studied. Many suggestive questions are given after each 
chapter. Much time should be spent in finding answers to 
these. A number of laboratory exercises should be given on 
farms in the region. One should not too lightly condemn the 
practices of the farmers, but should rather try to learn what 
are the natural and economic conditions that led to the present 
practices. Many farmers in the community are in all proba- 
bility farming in a manner that is best for present conditions, 
but that may not be best a few years from now when condi- 
tions change. 

This book is adapted for use in schools and colleges that 



INTRODUCTION vii 

wish to devote some time to the study of dairy farming. 
Three to five recitations per week and two laboratory periods 
per week will usually be desirable. At least a part of the 
laboratory exercises, and preferably all of them, should be 
given in periods that are two hours long. If this much time 
cannot be allowed, the laboratory period may be placed at the 
end of the day so that when farms are visited, it will be pos- 
sible to take the longer time that is necessary. 

It is hoped that the book will also prove useful to farmers 
who wish a better understanding of the principles involved 
in the successful operation of a dairy farm. 

G. F. WARREN. 
Ithaca, N.Y., 

April 1, 1916. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER 1 

PAGES 

Importance or the Dairy Industry ..... 1-11 

Milk a universal food, 1 — Value of milk as food, 1 — 
Butter and cheese as food, 2 — One dairy cow per family, 3 

— Amounts of dairy products used, 4 — Milk inspection, 5 

— Dairy cattle as a source of meat, 5 — Dairy cattle in other 
countries, — The dairy cow an efficient machine, 7 — Cows 
effective users of by-products, 7 — Dairying and main- 
tenance of soil fertility, 9 — Cows help to provide a full 
year's work, 9 — Receipts from dairy products, 10. 

Questions and problems 10 

Collateral reading 11 



CHAPTER 2 

Breeds of Cattle ......... 12-39 

Origin of Breeds : Origin of domesticated cattle, 12 — 
Origin of breeds, 12 — Definition of terms, 13 — Classifica- 
tion of cattle, 14 — Value of breeds, 14 — Pedigrees, 15. 

Dairy Breeds: Number of animals registered, 16 — Hol- 
stein-Friesian, 17 — Jersey, 21 — Guernsey, 24 — Ayrshire, 
27 — Brown Swiss, 30 — Dutch Belted, 30 — Kerry, 30. 

Dual Purpose : Dual Purpose, 31 — Shorthorn, 32 — 
Polled Durham, 34 — Red Polled, 34 — Devon, 36. 

Beef Breeds: Hereford, 37 — Aberdeen-Angus, 37 — 
Galloway, 38. 

Questions and problems 38 

Laboratory exercises 39 

Collateral reading 39 

ix 



X CONTENTS 

CHAPTER 3 

PAGES 

Selection and Improvement of Dairy Cattle . . . 40-78 

Selection of a Breed : Selection of a breed, 40. 

Individual Selection : Selection of individual cows, 42 — 
Extent of variation of individuals, 44 — High-producing 
cows more economical producers, 46. 

Selection by Type : How individual selection is made, 47 

— The dairy type, 47 — The udder, 50 — The milk veins 
and milk wells, 51 — The barrel, 52 — The score card, 53. 

Selection by Performance Becords : Selection by records, 
56 — Overrating the importance of rich milk, 56 — Complete 
milk records, 58 — Taking samples for testing, 59 — Aver- 
aging tests, 61 — Permanent records, 61 — Cow testing asso- 
ciations, 61 — Advanced registry, 64 — Relation of age of 
cow to yield and richness of milk, 66. 

Selection of a Bull : Selection of the bull, 69 — Differ- 
ence in transmission of dairy qualities by different bulls, 71 

— Methods of selecting a bull, 73 — Cross breeding, 74. 

Questions and problems 75 

Laboratory exercises 78 

Collateral reading 78 

CHAPTER 4 

Management of Dairy Cattle 79-93 

Decline of milk production in summer, 79 — Protection 
from flies, 79 — Dehorning, 81 — Marking calves, 82 — 
Shelter, 82 — Milking the heifer, 83— Methods of milking, 
84 — Hard-milking cows, 85 — Effect of interval between 
milkings, 86 — Milking machines, 86 — Cow with leaky 
teats, 87 — Bloody milk, 87 — Chapped teats, 88 — Warts 
on teats, 88— Bitter milk, 88 — Kicking cows, 88— Self- 
sucking cows, 89 — How long should a cow be dry ? 89 — 
Drying up a cow, 89 — Milking the cow before calving, 90 

— Care of cow after calving, 90 — Management of young 
stock, 91 — Care and management of the bull, 91. 

Questions and problems 93 

Laboratory exercises ....... 93 

Collateral reading 93 



CONTENTS xi 



CHAPTER 5 



PAGES 

Feeding Dairy Cattle 94-138 

Composition of feeds and feeding stuffs : The uses of 
feed, 94 — Chemical analysis of feeds, 94 — Water, 95 — 
Ash, 95 — Protein, 95 — Crude fiber, 95 — Nitrogen-free 
extract, 95 — Fat, or ether extract, 95 — Digestibility, 96 — 
Production values, 96 — Feeding standards, 97 — Calculat- 
ing a ration, 100 — The cost of the ration, 105. 

Discussion of common feed stuffs: Timothy hay, 106 — 
Corn stover, 106 — Hay from legumes, 106 — Silage, 107 — 
Corn, 107 — Wheat bran, 107 — Oats and oat products, 108 

— Cottonseed meal, 108 — Linseed meal, 109 — Gluten feed, 
109 — Beet pulp and molasses, 109 — Brewers' grains, 109 

— Mixed feeds, 110 — Condimental stock foods, 111. 

Feeding young stock and dry coivs: Calf raising, 112 — 
Raising the calf on skim-milk, 113 — Raising calves when 
whole milk is sold, 116 — The use of milk substitutes, 117 

— Feeding for veal, 119 — Feeding the dairy heifer, 120 — 
Salt requirements, 123 — Feeding the cow when dry, 124. 

Feeding the cow in milk : Water for cows, 125 — Turn- 
ing on pasture, 126 — Feeding grain while on pasture, 127 — 
Providing for periods of short pasture, 128 — Amount to 
feed, 129 — The balanced ration, 131 — Succulent feed, 132 

— Palatability of the ration, 132 — Order of feeding, 133. 

Feeding cows for the maximum production in official tests : 
Obtaining the maximum production, 133. 

Questions and problems 135 

Laboratory exercises . 137 

Collateral reading . 138 

CHAPTER 6 

The Dairy Barn 139-149 

General arrangement of barns, 140 — Lighting, 140 — 
The floor, 141 — The platform, 142 — The gutter, 144 — 
The stalls, 144 — Mangeis, 144 — Ties, 145 — Ventilation, 
146 — Cost of dairy barns, 147. 

Questions and problems 148 

Laboratory exercises 148 

Collateral reading 149 



xii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER 7 

' PAGES 

CoJiMON Ailments of Cattle 150-167 

Normal conditions : The pulse, 150 — Temperature, 151 
— Respiration, 151 — Excretions, 151. 

Instruments and medicines : Instruments and medicines, 
151 — Drenching a cow, 152. 

Common ailments: Milk fever, 153 — Abortion, 155 — 
Tuberculosis, 156 — Inflammation of the udder, 158 — 
Scours in calves, 160 — Lice, 161 — Bloat, 162 — Cowpox, 
162— Blackleg, 163 — Sorghum and kafir poisoning, 164 — 
Corn-stalk disease, 165. 

Questions and problems 166 

Laboratory exercises . 166 

Collateral reading 167 



CHAPTER 8 

Milk and Its Products . 168-201 

Composition of milk: Average composition, 168 — 
Water, 168 — Fat, 169 — Protein, 170 — Sugar, 170 — Min- 
eral matter or ash, 171 — Color of milk, 171. 

Factors affecting composition: Kind of animal, 172 — 
Breed, 173 — Stage of lactation, 174 — Individuality of the 
animal, 175 — Interval between milkings, 175 — Fore milk 
and strippings, 176 — Effect of feed, 176. 

IfarArei m^7^• : Sanitary milk, 177 — Certified milk, 181. 

Butter making on the farm : Butter making on the farm, 
182 — Facilities needed, 183 — What is good butter ? 183 — 
Flavor, 184 — Body, color, and salt, 184— Separation of 
cream, 185 — Ripening of cream, 186 — Temperature for 
churning, 187 — Churns and churning, 188 — Salting and 
working, 189 — Package, 190. 

Factory products: Creameries, 191 — Cheese .making, 
192 — Condensed milk, 193 — Milk flour, 194. 

Questions and problems 194 

Laboratory exercises 195 

Collateral reading 200 



CONTENTS xiii 

CHAPTER 9 

PAGES 

Conditions affecting the Development of Dairying . 202-220 

Cattle and grass, 202 — Topography and climate, 203 — 
Location of beef and dairy cattle, 204 — Relation of trans- 
portation to dairying, 208 — Other adjustments due to 
transportation, 213 — Marginal regions, 214 — Effect of dis- 
tance to railroad, 214 — Soil and climate as determining the 
kind of product, 215 — Kind of product and season of pro- 
duction, 215 — Animal unit defined, 218. 

Questions and problems 219 

Collateral reading .... .... 220 

CHAPTER 10 

Systems of Farming on Dairy Farms ..... 221-239 
Crops for feed: Corn silage, 221 — Soiling crops, 223 — 

Roots, 223 — Legumes, 224 — Pasture, 224 — Home-grown 

grain, 225. 

Cropping systems for dairy farms : Principles of a good 

cropping system, 225 — Examples of rotations, 226. 

Cash crops and feed raised : Feed and cash crops, 227 — 
All feed purchased, 228 — Nothing but roughage raised, 228 

— Roughage and grain raised, 229 — Roughage and cash 
crops raised, 229. 

Management of manure : Amount of manure produced, 
230 — Fertility of feed returned by cows, 231 — Losses of 
manure and their prevention, 232 — Value of manure, 234 

— Value of manure depends on the rate of application, 235 

— Value of manure depends on the crop on which it is 
applied, 238. 

Questions and problems . . . . . . . 238 

Laboratory exercises . 239 

CHAPTER 11 

Methods of Renting Dairy Farms ..... 240-245 
Cash rent, 240 — Share of crops, 240 — Share of receipts, 
240 — Examples of rented farms, 242. 

Questions and problems 245 

Collateral reading: 245 



XIV 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER 12 
Cost of Production and Methods of Marketing 

Cost of production : Cost of producing milk, 246 — Cost 
of raising heifers, 250. 

Marketing dairy products: Ways of marketing, 253 — 
Value of skim-milk in cities, 254. 

Questions and problems 

Collateral reading 



CHAPTER 13 

Other Important Factors for Success in Dairy Farming 258-288 

Way s^ef^ measuring profit: The most important factors 
for succes#, 258 — Ways of measuring profit, 258. 

Size of business : Size of business, 259 — Relation of size 
of farm to efficiency in use of labor, 260 — Relation of size 
of farm to work done, 262 — Relation of size of farm to 
efficiency in use of horses, 264 — Relation of size of farm to 
efficiency in use of machinery, ^65 — Relation of size of 
farm to efficiency in use of capital, 265 — Size of herd, 267 
— Summary of size of dairy farms, 268. 

Beturns per cow : Reason for poor returns, 269 — Costs 
and returns must both be considered, 271 — Poor producers 
promptly sold, 271 — Size of cows, 271. 

Crop yields: Soils for the dairy farm, 274 — The well- 
balanced farm, 274. 

Diversified and specialized dairy farms : Relation of cash 
crops to profits, 276 — Relation of capital to amount of stock 
to keep, 277 — Acres per animal unit, 278 — Reasons for 
large profits on diversified farms, 279. 

Some successfid farms : A successful dairy and hog farm 
in Iowa, 281 — A successful diversified dairy farm in New 
York, 285. 

Questions and problems . 287 

Laboratory exercises 288 

Collateral reading 288 



CONTENTS XV 

PAGES 

Appendix 289-306 

Addresses of cattle breeders associations, 289 — Scale of 
points for a Jersey cow, 290 — Scale of points for Ayrshire 
cow, 291 — Scale of points for Guernsey cow, 293 — Scale 
of points for Holstein-Friesian cow, 294 — Imports and ex- 
ports of daily products, 296 — Legal standards for dairy 
products, 297 — Average composition of milk and its 
products, 298 — Average weights of milk and cream, 298 — 
The Hsecker feeding standard, 298 — Wing's method of 
balancing rations, 304 — Average weights of feeding-stuffs, 
305 — Measuring grain, 305 — Measuring ear corn, 305 — 
Measuring straw, 306 — Measuring hay, 306 — Capacity of 
silos, 306. 



DAIRY FARMING 

CHAPTER 1 
IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY 

G. F. Warren 

1. Milk a Universal Food. Milk is the one universal 
food of mankind. All civilized peoples use milk from farm 
animals. The more highly civilized and prosperous the 
population, the greater is the amount of milk consumed. 
In regions so far north that cows cannot be kept, reindeer 
milk is used. In regions like India and the Philippines, 
which are too hot for our common cattle, the water buffaloes 
are the dairy animals and beasts of burden. In the deserts 
the milk of mares and camels serves as food. In regions 
where the people are very poor, goats and sheep are used 
as milk animals. In parts of South America llamas are 
so used. Everywhere civilized man keeps some milk animal. 

2. Value of Milk as Food. The value of milk as food 
is beginning to be better appreciated, but even now its 
full value is not always realized. Most liquids have very 
little food value ; for this reason, all liquids are sometimes 
looked upon as luxuries. But average milk contains 12 to 
13 per cent of dry matter. This dry matter is readily 
digestible and contains necessary foods in good proportions. 



DAIRY FARMING 



The edible portion of an average beef animal is only 38 per 
cent dry matter. The remaining 62 per cent is water.^ 

A quart of milk weighs 2.15 pounds and contains two- 
thirds as much energy value, and nearly half as much protein 
as a pound of sirloin steak. It is particularly rich in ash, 
the bone-forming materials that are so essential for all young 
animals. It contains about twice as much of these as does 
beefsteak. A quart of skim-milk has over one-third of the 
energy value of a pound of sirloin steak. It is richer in 
ash and has almost half as much protein as the steak, as is 
shown in Table 1. 

Table 1. — Comparison of Sirloin Steak with Milk, Butter, 

AND Cheese ^ 



1 pound sirloin steak 
1 quart 4 % milk .... 
1 quart skim-milk . . . 
1 pound butter .... 
1 pound cheese (full cream) 



Water 



Pounds 

.54 

1.87 

1.95 

.11 

.34 



Dry 

Matter 



Protein 



Pounds Pounds 

.46 .165 



.28 
.20 
.89 
.66 



.071 
.073 
.010 
.259 



Ash 



Pounds 

.009 
.015 
.015 
.030 
.038 



Energy 
Value 



Calories 

985 

699 

366 

3605 

1950 



As the value of milk as food becomes better known, it 
is more widely used by persons of all ages. If much that 
is spent for meat were spent for milk, we could be as well 
fed at less cost. If much of the money that is spent for 
tea, coffee, alcohol, and other stimulants, that have little 
or no food value, were spent for milk, our health and our 
wealth would both be improved. 

3. Butter and Cheese as Food. Butter is often thought 
of as an expensive food, but it is the most concentrated of 

1 U. S. Dept. Agr. ; Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin (Revised) 28, 
pp. 27, 28. 

2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin (Revised) 28. 



IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY 3 

our ordinary foods. As shown in Table 1, a pound of 
butter will furnish three and two-thirds times as much 
energy as a pound of sirloin steak. Usually it does not 
cost twice as much as the steak. It is one of the cheap 
animal foods, is highly concentrated and easy to digest. 
Cheese is a cheap source of animal protein. We use over 
four times as much butter as cheese, but the amount of 
cheese used is increasing. 

4. One Dairy Cow per Family. In the ten years 1900 
to 1910 the number of steers and bulls in the United States 
decreased one-fifth, but the number of dairy cows increased 
with the population. In 1910 the average number of 
persons living together as one family was 4.5. Counting 
the dairy cows on farms and those not on farms, there was 
one dairy cow for each 4.2 persons, or a little over one cow 
per family. For sixty years the United States has main- 

Table 2. — Population and Number of Dairy Cows on Farms 
AND Ranges in the United States Exclusive of Outlying 

Possessions ^ 



Year 


Population 


Number of Dairy 
Cows 


Number of Persons 
PER Cow 


1850 


23,191,876 


6,385,094 


3.6 


1860 


31,443,321 


8,585,735 


3.7 


1870 


38,558,371 


8,935,332 


4.3 


1880 


50,155,783 


12,443,120 


4.0 


1890 


62,947,714 


16,511,950 


3.8 


1900 


75,994,575 


17,135,633 


4.4 


1910 


91,972,266 


20,625,432 


4.5 



1 Twelfth Census, Vol. V, p. 704. Thirteenth Census, Vol. I, pp. 24, 
1285, and Vol. V, p. 341. In addition to the above there were 973,033 
dairy cows not on farms in 1900 and 1,170,338 in 1910. Most of these 
were kept by families in villages, Vol. V, p. 430. The census does not 
give the number of cows in cities for the earlier years. 



4 DAIRY FARMING 

tained an average of a little more than one dairy cow per 
family. Because meat is so expensive we are using less of 
it, but we are not decreasing the number of dairy cows. 

5. Amounts of Dairy Products Used. The number of 
dairy cows just about keeps pace with population, but there 
have been changes in the use made of milk. The amount 
of condensed milk produced increased 165 per cent in the 
ten years 1899 to 1909.^ The amount of fresh milk used as 
food has increased rapidly. In New York City the amount 
consumed per capita has increased one-third in twenty years. 

Table 3. — Butter and Cheese Produced and Consumed in 
THE United States, and Milk Shipped to New York City 





Butter 


Cheese 


Milk and Cream 

Shipped to New York 

City 4 


Year 


Produced 

per 
Capita 2 


Consumed 

per 

Capita 3 


Produced 

per 
Capita 2 


Consumed 

per 
Capita 3 


Milk per 
Capita 


Condensed 

Milk and 

Cream 


1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 
1910 


Pounds 

13.3 
16.1 
19.1 
19.6 
17.6 


Pounds 

18.9 
19.4 
17.5 


Pounds 

4.2 
4.8 
4.1 
3.9 
3.5 


Pounds 

2.9 
3.6 
3.8 


Quarts 

100 
109 
133 


Quarts 

2 

5 

7 



Approximately 288 quarts of milk per person are used 
per year in the farm family. In cities about 112 quarts 
per capita^ are consumed. It is possible that this differ- 
ence has something to do with the better development of 

1 Thirteenth Census, Vol. X, p. 374. 

2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 177, p. 7. 

3 Amount produced plus imports less exports as given in reports of U. S. 
Dept. Agr. 

* Data for New York City furnished by The Milk Reporter. 
5 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 177, pp. 17, 18. 



IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY 5 

children on farms. But the amount consumed in cities is 
rapidly increasing. 

6. Milk Inspection. In recent years great interest has 
been taken in improving the milk supply. Physicians and 
boards of health have been agitating and inspecting. As 
in most worthy publicity campaigns many statements are 
made that are not true. The agitation has brought pressure 
for better milk, but at the same time the extreme statements 
made have led many persons to use less milk than they other- 
wise would. The writer believes that for every person who 
is injured by milk, many persons suffer from the lack of it. 
We need education for better care of milk on the farm, in 
the city, and in the home, but we also need education as to 
the great food value of milk so that more milk will be used. 
It is unfortunate when one of these interferes with the other. 

Dairy inspection has done much good. It will do more 
good when more wisely performed. In the past it has too 
often been made by persons who do not understand farm- 
ing or farmers. The emphasis is often placed on unessential 
things. An inexperienced youth with an arbitrary score 
card turned loose among dairy farmers usually does more 
harm than good. In this way unnecessary antagonism is 
often aroused. Recent investigations have shown that there 
is no relationship between the score of a dairy as shown by 
a score card and the quality of the milk produced.^ In a 
later chapter the essentials for the production of whole- 
some milk are discussed. The vital points are that the 
milker and the cow both be in good health and that the 
milk be kept cold and as free from dirt as possible. 

7. Dairy Cattle as a Source of Meat. Since there is one 
dairy cow per family there is approximately one veal calf 

1 New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 398. 



6 DAIRY FARMING 

or COW available for beef each year per family. About 
seventeen pounds of dressed veal per family is used annually 
in the United States.^ Nearly all of this is produced by dairy 
cows. From the comparative number of dairy cows and 
other cows, it appears that in addition to veal calves almost 
half of the beef animals slaughtered are produced by dairy 
cows. As population becomes more dense, we shall depend 
more and more on the dairyman for our meat supply. Beef 
from the beef breeds of animals will become too expensive 
for any but the wealthy, as it now is in densely populated 
countries. In the ten years 1900 to 1910 the number of 
dairy cows increased. Butter production increased 9 per 
cent and cheese production 7 per cent. But the number of 
steers and bulls decreased one-fifth. 

8. Dairy Cattle in Other Countries. The British Isles 
have one dairy cow to eleven persons. They import large 
quantities of cheese and butter. France and the Netherlands 
have one cow to five persons. Germany has one cow to six 
persons. Denmark has one cow to two persons. It furnishes 
large quantities of butter for England. Japan and China 
show a striking contrast with America and Europe. Their 
dense population makes any kind of animal food too expensive 
to be used freely except by the wealthy. Instead of one 
cow for a family, Japan has one head of cattle for thirty-seven 
persons. The number of dairy cows is not reported, but 
this probably means that there is not more than one cow 
for from seventy to one hundred persons.^ 

As the population in the United States is becoming denser, 
we are unfortunately forced to use less animal food, but we 

1 Assuming that the calves slaughtered on farms were as heavy as those 
killed in slaughter houses. 

2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1912, pp. 666-668. International Insti- 
tute of Agriculture, Vol. V, No. 10, p. 485. 



IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY J 

still use far more than any other nation. For each person 
we now produce over twenty-five times as much human food 
from animals as is produced for each person in Japan. ^ 

9. The Dairy Cow an EflScient Machine. From a given 
quantity of feed the dairy cow produces more human food 
than does any other animal. According to Armsby's stand- 
ards, the amount of feed required to grow and fatten a 
1200-pound steer would, if fed to dairy cows, produce about 
three times as much human food. 

But the dairy cow must be raised, and the growing heifer 
is no more efficient than the growing beef animal. Both 
industries require that cows and bulls be kept. Figures 
showing the returns from the entire beef industry are not 
available, but results of the entire dairy industry in one 
county, including the feed for the entire dairy herds and 
including milk and meat returned for human food, are given 
in Table 4, as well as the results from an entire poultry in- 
dustry. As producers of protein, hens are the nearest com- 
petitors of dairy cattle, but judged on an energy basis hogs 
are second to cows. Both hens and hogs consume a higher 
class of foods so that when compared with cows they are 
not quite so productive as the figures would suggest. 

10. Cows Effective Users of By-products. As population 
increases, less and less grain is fed to animals because it is 
all needed as human food. In Europe and other densely 
populated regions cows are fed less grain than in America. 
The dairy cow is the most efficient machine for changing 
grass, hay, straw, cornstalks, and the by-products from 
mills into human food. The cow will make a larger amount 
of human food out of these products than will any other 

^ Calculated on the basis of animal units aside from horses. See page 
218. 



8 



DAIRY FARMING 



Table 4, — Proportion of Food Eaten by Various Classes 
OF Live Stock that is Returned for Human Use ^ 





Per Cent of Pro- 
tein Returned 


Per Cent 


OF Energy 


Returned 




Of Total 
Food 


Of Digest- 
ible 
Protein 


Of Total 
Food 


Of Digest- 
ible 
Food 


Of Produc- 
tion Value 
of Food 


Cow 2 .... 




41.0 






48.9 


Cow 3 . . . . 




31.4 






40.6 


Dairy herds * . . 


14.7 


22.9 


10.0 


15.1 


33.8 


Steer ^ . . . . 




8.9 






17.0 


Steer ^ . . . . 


6.4 


11.8 


4.7 


6.9 


14.8 


Hen 7 . . . . 


16.1 


20.9 


7.1 


8.3 


14.1 


Poultry flock ^ 


14.5 


18.6 


6.4 


7.5 


12.6 


Hog 9 . . . . 


10.2 


13.2 


15.1 


17.5 


29.9 



1 Values as human food from U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin (Revised) 
28. 

2 1000-pound cow giving 6000 pounds of 4 per cent milk based on Armsby's 
feeding standard. 

' Similar cow raised to 2 years on Armsby's standard, milked 5 years, 
then sold as lean beef. 

* Food eaten by 5191 cows, 1078 heifers, 874 calves, 158 bulls, in Dela- 
ware County, New York. Pasture assumed to be one-third of the food. 
Net product 24, 646,000 pounds milk, 100,000 pounds skim-milk, 260 pounds 
butter, and 559 cows, 235 heifers, 62 bulls, 9 calves for beef. Most of 
the calves were killed and thrown away at birth. 

5 Steer grown to 1000 pounds in 2 years, then fattened 200 pounds in 
100 days by Armsby's standard. Meat counted as fat beef. 

* All food eaten by a steer that grew to 1588 pounds in 3 years, assumed 
to be fat beef. Ontario Agricultural College, Report, 1893, p. 122. 

^ Food and product of 1 hen, average of 1803 by the writer. 

8 All feed except grass for an average of 1803 hens and 60 roosters kept 
one year, 2713 chickens raised. Net product 204,093 eggs above those 
used for incubation, 1080 fowls and 1404 cockrels and pullets sold for meat, 
4395 pounds, records kept by the writer. 

' Hogs assumed to have eaten the same feed as 1 hen and to have made a 
gain of 1 pound for 5 pounds of grain. 



IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY 9 

animal. Cows also make use of the grasses that grow on 
large areas of land that cannot be profitably tilled. 

11. Dairying and Maintenance of Soil Fertility. From most 
parts of the United States large quantities of stock foods 
are shipped out for foreign use. In many sections roughage 
that is good stock food is still destroyed. The introduction 
of dairying helps to keep a larger part of the fertility on the 
farm. Many farmers who make dairying a part of their 
farm business consider the maintenance of soil fertility, and 
the use of waste products, to be as important as the direct 
profits from the cows. 

Experiments for many years have shown that it is pos- 
sible to maintain the fertility of the soil by means of chemical 
fertilizers, but as a matter of fact farmers who use farm 
manure are most likely to keep up the fertility. 

Cows Help to Provide a Full Year's Work. A farm is pri- 
marily a place to work. The carpenter who works only 
half the year is not likely to accumulate much property, 
nor is the farmer who works only half the year likely to 
pay for a farm. A limited number of cows on the farm 
give employment in the morning and evening when field 
work cannot be done. In the North where cows are most 
numerous, the days are so short during much of the year 
that a full day's work cannot be done, unless there are chores 
to do. Cattle also provide work for stormy days and for 
cold days in winter. They also provide work that children 
can do before and after school. 

Farm children are particularly fortunate in that they 
have to help their fathers in the farm work. In the cities 
laws are passed to prevent child labor, not because all labor 
is injurious but because of the conditions under which the 
work is done. Farm children learn much by working with 



10 DAIRY FARMING 

their fathers. Perhaps the most important thing that they 
learn is to persist in necessary work even when they would 
rather not. While helping with the chores the children are 
learning and at the same time helping to increase the family 
income. 

12. Receipts from Dairy Products. Corn is the most 
valuable product of American farms but most of it is fed on 
the farm. Dairy products are probably the largest single 
source of income of American farmers. The dairy products 
sold from farms in 1909 amounted to nearly $500,000,000. 
The value of both cotton and wheat sold exceeded this. But if 
the cattle and calves that are also a product of the dairy were 
combined with the milk, the receipts from these sales would 
probably exceed the sales of any other product. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Get the local retail prices of butter, cheese, milk, skim- 
milk, and sirloin steak. Make a table showing the amount of 
protein and energy value that $1 will buy in each product. 

2. Define " per capita." Define " dry matter." 

3. Find the amount of milk and butter used per person in 10 
to 12 families in your region. Average these and compare with 
the averages given on page 4. Each student may report on one 
family, or more if there are not 10 students in the class. 

4. From the census reports for your state find the population 
and the number Of dairy cows for your county. How many per- 
sons are there for one cow? Compare Tvdth Table 2. What 
dairy products are shipped into your county? What products 
are shipped out of the county ? 

5. Repeat question 4 for your state. 

6. What was the total value of all dairy products sold in your 
county in 1909 ? In your state ? Which of the dairy products sold 
are most important ? 

7. What was the value of dairy products compared with other 
leading farm products in your state ? 



IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY 11 

8. Why is more cheese used in Europe than in America? Why 
are we using more cheese than formerly ? 

9. Of what dairy products does the United States import more 
than it exports? Of which does it export more than it imports? 
Which are greater in value, the total imports or exports? To what 
product is this due? See page 296. 

COLLATERAL READING 

The Production and Consumption of Dairy Products, U. S. 
Dept. Agr., Bulletin 177. 

The Use of Milk as Food, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 363. 

In the lists of collateral reading no attempt is made to give a 
complete list of books and bulletins. A few of the more important 
references that are readily available are given. Bulletins of the 
different state experiment stations are not always available, for this 
reason they are not often given as collateral reading but are referred 
to in footnotes. At the beginning of the course the experiment 
station in your state should be asked for all available bulletins. If 
after examination it appears that certain ones of the publications 
are likely to be needed for special study, members of the class should 
send postal cards requesting them. It is better to have the students 
do this writing because instruction as to where to get information is 
a part of the course. 

Write to the Bureau of the Census, Washington, D.C., or to your 
congressman for the census report on agriculture for your state. 
Also ask for the report on animals and animal products for the 
United States. 

Many important laboratory exercises are given after Chapter 2, 
page 39, and for following chapters. These exercises should be 
begun while Chapters 1 and 2 are being studied. Because of the 
frequent use that is made of the Babcock milk test it is a good plan 
to begin the laboratory work with Exercise 20, page 196. 



CHAPTER 2 

BREEDS OF CATTLE 

c. h. eckles 

Origin of Breeds 

13. Origin of Domesticated Cattle. No cattle are native 
to America. All those found in both North and South 
America are descended from cattle brought from Europe 
and are the descendants of wild cattle that formerly Hved 
in Europe and Asia. It is not known where or by whom 
cattle were first domesticated as it occurred in prehistoric 
times. It is generally believed that there were two original 
forms of wild cattle, the one somewhat smaller than the 
Jersey, the other probably larger than any cattle that live 
to-day and in type something like the long-horned cattle 
formerly raised on the ranges of South America and in 
Texas. 

14. Origin of Breeds. The differences between these 
two wild types account in part for the differences between 
breeds of cattle, such for instance as the extreme difference 
in type between the Jersey and the Holstein, or between 
the long-horned cattle found in Texas and the Angus or 
the Shorthorns. 

Other factors in the formation of breeds are climate, food, 
and nature of the surroundings. For example, the cattle of 
Holland as a result of living for generations in a rich level 

12 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 13 

country have become adapted to these conditions and are 
not so well suited to rough scanty pastures as the Brown 
Swiss, or the Ayrshires which have been produced on poor 
pastures. On the continent of Europe the breeds and sub- 
breeds are almost innumerable. They have chiefly originated 
in the manner mentioned. In Great Britain alone ten or 
twelve distinct breeds have developed. Up to about the 
middle of the eighteenth century these natural influences 
were the chief factors in the development of breeds. About 
that time, largely as the result of the work of Robert Blake- 
well, a great interest was aroused in England in improving 
cattle. 

The beginning of modern breeds may be traced largely to 
this great movement. The methods used were careful selec- 
tion, more liberal feeding, and good management. In some 
cases, as with the Shorthorns and the Ayrshires, crossbreeding 
and inbreeding were at first practiced. At the present 
time most cattle breeders direct their efforts towards further 
improvement in the breeds already in existence and not 
towards the establishment of new breeds. 

15. Definition of Terms. Scrub and native are terms used 
to indicate that an animal does not carry more than a small 
amount of the blood of an improved breed. 

Grade. This term, generally used with some breed name, 
as Grade-Holstein, means that the animal has one-half or 
usually more of the blood of the improved breed. When 
the proportion of improved blood is high, the animal is 
called a " high grade." 

Crossbred indicates that the animal is the offspring of pure- 
bred parents of distinct breeds. 

Pure-bred. This term is properly apphed to cattle whose 
ancestors came from the native home of the breed and con- 



14 DAIRY FARMING 

formed to the standards of the breed. Records must be 
available showing the breeding of these animals and tracing 
back in all lines to those coming from the original home of 
the breed. Pure-bred animals are sometimes called thorough- 
bred, but this term is also used to indicate a particular breed 
of horses and is usually restricted to that meaning. 

Registered. The breeders of each important breed of 
cattle have an organization for the purpose of keeping records 
and advancing the interests of the breed. Each of these 
organizations keeps record books. Any pure-bred animal 
that has the breed characteristics may be recorded, provided 
both parents are already on record. A pure-bred animal 
that is recorded is called a registered animal. 

16. Classification of Cattle. The breeds common in 
America are generally classed as follows : 

Dairy Breeds. Holstein, Ayrshire, Jersey, Guernsey, Brown 
Swiss, Dutch Belted. 

Dual Purpose. Shorthorn (Dairy Type), Red Polled, Polled 
Durham, Devon. 

Beef. Shorthorn, Hereford, Aberdeen-Angus, Galloway. 

17. Value of Breeds. Animals of a distinct breed that is 
adapted to the region usually sell for more than animals of 
mixed or unimproved breeding even if the latter are equally 
good animals individually. The value of the pure-bred is 
due to the fact that it is possible to predict with reasonable 
certainty what characteristics will be inherited by the off- 
spring. Among dairy cattle it is not uncommon to find ani- 
mals of mixed breeding that rank with pure-breds as pro- 
ducers of dairy products. These animals of mixed breeding, 
however, cannot be depended upon to reproduce themselves 
in their offspring. Very high grades are m_ore hkely to 
produce young like themselves. Pure-breds have been 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 15 

bred for generations with certain objects in view, and in 
time these characteristics become fixed and are transmitted 
with fair certainty. 

The breed should be looked upon as a means of retaining 
the characteristics that have been developed by the efforts 
of the breeders in the past. Certain breeds have for gen- 
erations been selected and developed for the purpose of pro- 
ducing the greatest possible amount of good beef from the 
least feed. It is reasonable to expect an animal belonging 
to one of these breeds to excel one whose ancestors have 
never been selected for any definite purpose. Other breeds 
have been developed as dairy breeds, or for dual-purpose 
use, and are the most efficient animals for these purposes. 

18. Pedigrees. A pedigree is a record of the ancestry of 
an animal. Its value lies in the opportunity it affords to 
study the characteristics of the ancestors. Breed associa- 
tions ^ have been organized by those interested, primarily for 
the purpose of keeping authentic records of the ancestry of 
pure-bred animals. Upon payment of the registration fee 
an animal that has the required breed characteristics and both 
of whose parents are recorded, may be recorded and assigned 
a registration number. By this means it is possible to trace 
the ancestry of any registered animal as far back as the 
ancestors that were imported. In ordinary use from three 
to six generations are recorded on the pedigree as studied 
by the breeder. 

While pedigrees are of great value in making it possible 
to select breeding animals to better advantage, it is a com- 
mon mistake to attach too much importance to them. An 
animal with a pedigree may not be any better than others 
that are high grades of the same breed. Pedigree alone is 

1 See addresses on p. 289. 



16 



DAIRY FARMING 



no indication of the merit of the animal as an individual 
since it is merely a record of parentage. 

Below is given the pedigree of the Jersey cow, Rosette's 
Gipsy Maid, including four generations. The name ofth( 
sire in each case appears at the top, and that of the dam a1 
the bottom of the bracket. 



' Eminent 
Rosette 
66050 



Rosette's Golden 

Lad 

57498 



Rosette's 
Gipsy Maid< 
220623 



Orlando P. 
2535 H. C. 

Rosette's 5th P. 
2881 H. C. 

Reminder P. 
2052 H. C. 



Financial Queen [ Financial Pride P 
155098 [6060 H.C. 



' Guenon's Golden 
Lad 
62168 



My Jolly Girl< 
206038 



Guenon's Mag V, 
L 189777 



Dairy Breeds 



Guenon Lad P. 
2571 H. C. 

Loraine 
82951 

f Guenon's Golden 
Lad 
62168 

Maceo's Mag V. 
174758 



19. Number of Animals Registered. Some idea of the 
greatly increased interest in pure-bred cattle is shown by the 
rapid increase during recent years in the number of animals 
registered by the breed associations. Over five times as 
many Holsteins were recorded in the last ten years as were 
recorded in the previous ten years. Three times as many 
Guernseys, twice as many Ayrshires, and nearly twice as 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 



17 



many Jerseys were recorded as in the preceding ten years. 
Although the totals look large it should be taken into ac- 
count that the number of registrations for each breed in- 
cludes all since the herdbook was established. Probably 
not over one-third of the total registered are now living. 
In proportion to the total number of dairy cattle in use in 
the United States the number registered is very small, prob- 
ably less than one in fifty. Table 5 gives the number of 
each breed registered, also a comparison of the numbers 
recorded in the last ten years and in the previous ten years. 

Table 5. — Numbers of Animals Registered 



Breed 


Before 
1895 


1895-1904 


1905-1914 


Total up 
TO 1915 


Last Ten 
Years Com- 
pared WITH 
Previous Ten 
Years 


Jersey . . . 
Holstein . . 
Guernsey . . 
Ayrshire . . 


143,519 
56,141 
11,029 
18,306 


111,782 
49,296 
15,661 
11,051 


197,300 

267,374 

52,450 

26,919 


452,601 

372,811 

79,140 

56,276 


Per Cent 

176 
542 
335 
244 



20. Holstein-Friesian. This well-known breed of cattle 
originated in Holland and is especially well developed in 
the province of Friesland. It is not native, as the name 
Holstein would indicate, to the duchy of Holstein, which is 
a province of North Germany. Some of the first cattle of 
this breed imported to America were incorrectly called 
Holstein, and a breed association was organized under this 
name. Later another was started called the Dutch-Friesian. 
These two were combined in 1885 under the name Holstein- 
Friesian, which is the official name of the breed in this coun- 
try. It is now generally called Holstein in America, 
c 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 19 

This breed is probably one of the oldest among those in 
general use. Holland has been famous for its cattle since 
the time of the Romans. The best part of Holland is below 
the level of the ocean, which is kept back by great dikes. 
The land is level and very fertile and especially adapted to 
grass. The cattle kept in Holland are given the best care of 
any cattle in the world. Attention is given to proper feed- 
ing, gentle handling of the animals, and to good sanitary con- 
ditions. As a result Holland exceeds all other countries in 
the average yield of milk and butter-fat per cow. Nearly 
all of the Holsteins in the United States are descended from 
about 10,000 head which were imported between 1875 and 
1885. This breed ranks first in the number of animals now 
being recorded. 

Holsteins are the largest of the dairy breeds, the cows 
reaching an average weight of 1200 pounds and the bulls 
1800 to 2200 pounds as a rule. The color is always black 
and white in any proportion but never blended. Cows of 
this breed are gentle and quiet in disposition. The breed- 
ing qualities are excellent, as is indicated by the rapid in- 
crease in numbers of recorded animals. The calves average 
95 pounds at birth, the largest of any breed except the 
Brown Swiss. 

Holsteins produce more milk on the average than any 
other breed. In percentage of fat they rank the lowest. The 
figures in Table 6 give the averages of cows in experiment 
station herds. It is quite certain that these cows, on the 
average, do not produce any more than well-kept private 
herds. 

On a farm where good conditions of management prevail, 
a herd should average at least 8000 pounds of milk per year. 
A high average would be 10,000 pounds per year. The milk 



20 



DAIRY FARMING 



or butter from this breed has considerably less yellow color 
than that of Jerseys, and in fact ranks the lowest in this 
respect. 

Table 6. — Production of Holstein Cows in Experiment 

Station Herds. 





Average 


Number op Cows 
Represented 


Pounds milk per year 

Per cent fat 

Pounds fat per year 

Per cent total solids 


8699 

3.45 

300 

12.29 


83 

83 

83 

9 



The highest fat records for a year made by this breed up 
to April 1, 1916, were : 



Duchess Skylark Ormsby . 
Finderne Pride Johanna Rue 
Finderne Holingen Fayne 



Pounds Milk 



27,762 
28,404 
24,612 



Pounds Fat 



1205 
1176 
1116 



The highest milk record was made by Tilly Alcartra, who 
produced 30,452 pounds of milk in a year, but she did not 
give as much fat as a number of other cows. 

In Holland, cattle of this breed are used for beef production 
as well as for dairy purposes. The calves are especially 
well adapted for veal as they are large at birth and gain 
rapidly during the first few weeks. When dry the cows fat- 
ten readily, and as is the case with other dairy breeds the 
gains are made as cheaply and rapidly as with animals of 
beef breeds. In the great cattle markets the price is always 
lower for animals of the dairy breeds than for those of beef 
breeds. There is some basis for this discrimination in the 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 21 

fact that the dairy breeds during fattening deposit larger 
quantities of fat around the internal organs, and tallow is 
worth but little as compared with the edible meat. The 
beef-bred animals deposit more of their fat in the muscular 
tissue giving the marbled condition so much prized. How- 
ever, the average meat consumer scarcely discriminates be- 
tween the beef from a Holstein and that from a beef -bred 
animal if both be of the same age. It is safe to prophesy 
that, in the future, dairy cattle will supply a much larger 
proportion of the beef used in this country, as has long been 
the case on the continent of Europe. 

The strong points of the breed are the high milk yield, 
the marked vigor of constitution especially of the calves, 
the good breeding qualities, the quiet disposition, and the 
value for beef and veal. The weakest point is generally 
considered to be the low percentage of fat, but owing to the 
large yield of milk the total production of fat is high. 

21. Jersey. The Jersey and the Guernsey breeds are 
often spoken of as the Channel Island breeds. They take 
their names from the islands of Jersey and Guernsey, located 
in the English Channel. Jersey Island is only eleven miles 
long and nine wide. The climate is mild and even. The 
cattle are pastured by tethering. The system of agriculture 
followed is very intensive since the average rent of the land 
is about $50 per acre. The sale of pure-bred Jersey cattle 
for export is an important source of income. Since 1789 
the laws of the island have prohibited the importation of 
cattle, so this breed has been kept pure since that time. Much 
attention is given to the type of the animal as well as to the 
butter production. This has resulted in the development of 
a breed of great symmetry and beauty. * 

At the present time this breed is used to a limited extent 



22 



DAIRY FARMING 



in England, and has been taken to all English speaking coun- 
tries, although by far the greatest number is now in North 
America. Some were brought to the United States about 
1850. From 1868 to 1890 large numbers were imported, 
and again since 1900 several importations have been made 




Fig. 2. — Imported Jersey cow, Lady Viola, many times champion in the 
show ring. A good representative of the Island type ; rather small, extreme 
dairy type, udder almost perfect, long level rump, very symmetrical outline. 

each year. This breed is most numerous in the Eastern and 
Southern States. 

The color may be any shade of yellow except orange — and 
ranges from light fawn to dark gray or black. The most 
common color is fawn shading to dark on the lower parts of 
the body. The tongue, and the switch of the tail are black in 
the majority of cases. White spots are not uncommon, 
especially on the lower part of the body. These were at 
one time strongly objected to, but now receive little atten- 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 



23 



tion. The color bears no relation to the value of any par- 
ticular cow as a dairy animal. Mature Jersey cows usually 
weigh from 750 to 900 pounds. Those found on Jersey 
Island and those recently imported are of smaller and more 
refined type and are known as the Island type in contrast 
to the larger, coarser type descended from the early im- 
portations, known as the American type. 

Cows of this breed are more sensitive than many others 
on account of a highly developed nervous temperament. 
When handled gently they become very docile, when care- 
lessly handled or abused they are quite the reverse. They 
seem to thrive better than some other breeds in warm cli- 
mates. As meat producers they rank very low. The calves 
are small at birth, weighing 55 pounds on the average and 
they do not gain rapidly for the first few weeks. For these 
reasons they are not well adapted for veal. 

The published records of Jersey cows owned by the 
American experiment stations are given in Table 7. On a 
farm where fairly good conditions are maintained a Jersey 
herd should be expected to average about 5500 pounds 
of milk per year containing on the average 5 per cent 
of fat. A high average milk yield would be 7000 pounds 

per cow. 

* 

Table 7. — Production of Jersey Cows in Herds Belonging 
TO Experiment Stations 



Pounds milk per year 
Per cent fat . . . 
Pounds fat per year 
Per cent total solids 



Average 



5508 
5.14 
283 
14.9 



Number of Cows 
Represented 



153 

154 

153 

29 



24 DAISY FARMING 

The highest records for a year up to April 1, 1916, were : 

Pounds Fat 




Sophie 19th of Hood Farm .... 17,558 999 

Spermfield Owl's Eva 16,457 993 

Eminent's Bess 18,783 963 



In quantity of milk the Jersey is surpassed by other 
dairy breeds. In use of food for the economical production 
of fat the Jersey and her close relative the Guernsey are un- 
surpassed. The best-known characteristics of this breed are 
the high percentage of fat and the yellow color of the prod- 
uct. The yellow color adds nothing to the flavor or the 
food value of milk or cream but makes the article more 
attractive to the consumer. The Jersey cow is also an un- 
usually persistent milker which contributes to her popularity 
as a family cow. This breed is best adapted for the produc- 
tion of cream or butter. The weakest points are a lack of 
vitality in the calves and lack of good breeding qualities in 
the cow. 

22. Guernsey. This breed is a native of the island of 
the same name, which is the second in size of the Channel 
Islands. The ancestors of this breed and of the Jersey were 
undoubtedly the same, and in fact a century ago the two 
breeds were essentially alike. The conditions under which 
the two breeds developed are almost identical, but type 
has been emphasized far less than on Jersey Island. As a 
result the Guernseys lack the symmetry and uniformity of 
type characteristic of the Jersey. The Guernsey cow 
weighs about 1000 pounds on the average, or at least 100 
pounds more than the Jersey, and is also coarser boned. In 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 



25 




26 



DAIRY FARMING 



general the colors resemble those of the Jersey, but include 
some colors not found in that breed. The common colors 
are reddish yellow, or lemon, or orange-fawn, with white 
markings. Guernseys are probably a little slower maturing 
than Jerseys, but are ready to freshen when about 24 months 
old. Like the Jerseys they have little adaptation for beef. 

Table 8, — Production of Guernsey Cows in Experiment 

Station Herds 



Average 



Number of Cows 
Represented 



Pounds milk per year 
Per cent fat . . . 
Pounds fat per year 
Per cent total solids 



5509 

4.98 

274 

14.2 



17 

21 

17 

6 



Records for cows belonging to experiment stations are 
given in Table 8. A herd should average at least 5500 pounds 
of milk per year containing 5 per cent of fat. A high aver- 
age would be 7000 pounds per cow. 

The highest records for one year up to April 1, 1916, were : 





Pounds Milk 


Pounds Fat 


Murne Cowan 

May Rilma 

Spotswood Daisy Pearl .... 


24,008 
19,673 
18,603 


1098 

1073 

957 



Guernsey milk and butter have a higher color than do the 
products of any other breed, and for this reason the Guernsey 
is especially favored where cream is sold in a critical market. 
The strong and weak points of this breed are practically 
the same as for the Jersey. They are best adapted for the 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 27 

production of cream and butter. Their milk yield is not 
sufficient to warrant their use where milk is sold without 
regard to its fat content. 

23. Ayrshire. The home of this breed is the county, or 
shire, of Ayr in southwest Scotland. This is a rolling, moder- 
ately fertile region and is not subject to great extremes of 
temperature. The origin of the breed is somewhat uncertain, 
but it dates back to the latter part of the eighteenth century. 
It is generally believed that the breed was the result of cross- 
ing Holland, Durham, and Channel Island animals upon 
the native stock. It is at present the leading dairy breed 
in Scotland and in New Zealand, and is common in parts of 
England. 

Ayrshire cattle were brought into Canada at an early date, 
and were brought to Massachusetts as early as 1837. These 
importations stopped after twenty or thirty years, and were 
not resumed until about 1900. Until recent years the 
Ayrshires in America were the descendants of the early 
importations. The importations of the past few years have 
met with the greatest favor, and as a result the best Ayr- 
shires in America are now of the same type as those found 
in Scotland. At the present time this breed ranks fourth 
among the dairy breeds in numbers registered in the United 
States. They are most numerous in the dairy sections of 
the East and in Wisconsin, Ohio, and Illinois. In portions of 
Canada they constitute the majority of the cattle in use. 

Many of their characteristics are between the Holstein 
and Jersey. This is true of the size, yield of milk, yield of 
fat, disposition of animals, size of calves, and breeding quali- 
ties. The common color is spotted, red and white, or brown 
and white in varying proportions. The two colors are dis- 
tinct and never blend to form a roan as with the Shorthorns. 



28 



DAIRY FARMING 




BREEDS OF CATTLE 



29 



The Ayrshire cows do not show the extreme angular dairy 
type exhibited by some other breeds. They are smoother 
over the shoulders and have fuller hind quarters. The udder 
development is the most perfect found in any breed. Special 
attention has been paid to this point by the Scotch breeders. 
The teats are placed uniformly on the udder and are of 
uniform size. The tendency to short teats has been the 
cause of much unfavorable criticism, but the care which has 
been taken within recent years to breed for longer teats has 
largely removed this objection. In beef production Ayr- 
shires rank high for a dairy breed. The calves weigh 65 
to 70 pounds at birth and are strong and vigorous. 

Table 9. — Production of Ayrshire Cattle in Experiment 

Station Herds 



Average 



Number of Cows 
Represented 



Pounds milk per year 
Per cent fat ... 
Pounds fat per year 
Per cent total solids 



6533 

3.85 

252 

12.9 



24 
24 
24 
17 



Results from experiment station herds are given in Table 
9. An average yield of about 6000 pounds of milk contain- 
ing 3.80 per cent fat may be expected from a herd under 
farm conditions if given reasonably good treatment. The 
milk does not show much yellow color. The breed is well 
adapted for the production of market milk since it gives a 
large amount of milk of average composition. 

The best record up to April 1, 1916, is held by Lady of 
Willowmoor with a production of 956 pounds of fat in one 
year. 



30 DAIRY FARMING 

24. Brown Swiss. These cattle are native to the north- 
eastern part of Switzerland where they have been bred as far 
back as history records. During the winter, season the cattle 
are kept in the valleys and in the summer they are pastured 
upon the mountain slopes. In America this breed is found in 
almost every state but as a rule only in isolated herds. The 
total number is small compared with the leading dairy breeds. 

In appearance these animals are plain, substantial, and 
well proportioned although inclined to be fleshy and often 
rather coarse in bone. The cows reach a weight of about 
1200 pounds. They are called brown, but the color is really 
more of a mouse color and varies from a silver gray or light 
brown, to a dark brown or nearly black. 

They are noted for their vitality and good breeding qual- 
ities. They are quiet and gentle. The calves are the larg- 
est of any breed used in America and are easy to raise on ac- 
count of their strong vitality. As milk producers the cows 
rank about with the Ayrshires in both yield and richness 
of milk. A milk yield of from 6000 to 9000 pounds per year 
is often obtained, and an average of 6500 pounds per cow 
should be obtained under good conditions. The fat aver- 
ages a trifle under 4 per cent. Some excellent advanced 
registry records have been made by this breed. The best 
record up to April 1, 1916, is held by College Bravura 2d 
with a production of 19,461 pounds of milk and 798 pounds 
of fat in one year. 

25. Dutch Belted. This breed has practically the same 
characteristics as the Holstein, except that it has a white 
band or belt extending around the body. It is used, to a 
limited extent only, in the Eastern States. 

26. Kerry. These cattle are smaller than those of any 
other breed. They are natives of Ireland. The average 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 31 

weight of the cows is 650 pounds. The color is black with 
a little white on the udder and underline. Another some- 
what larger type of this breed is known as the Dexter Kerry. 
A few small herds are to be found in the Eastern States. 
The cows produce a large amount of milk for their size. The 
milk averages about 4 per cent of fat. 

Dual-purpose Breeds 

"27. Dual-purpose. The term dual-purpose is used to 
describe those breeds of cattle kept for both milk and beef, 
in contrast with the more specialized breeds, which are 
kept primarily for either milk or beef alone. All dairy breeds 
have some value for beef, and all beef breeds are sometimes 
used for milk. The real dual-purpose cow stands about 
midway between the dairy type and the beef type. It must 
not be expected that a cow of this type will compare as a dairy 
animal with good individuals of the special dairy breeds in 
milk production, or that her calves can compete in beef pro- 
duction with those from the special beef breeds. A dual- 
purpose cow should be expected to produce about 200 pounds 
of butter-fat per year as against about 300 for an equally good 
specimen of a special dairy breed, and her calves should make 
fair beef. 

Dual-purpose breeds have been in favor in many sections 
of the United States especially in the corn belt. The dual- 
purpose breeds are less economical producers of dairy prod- 
ucts than the special dairy breeds and for this reason should 
not be chosen by the man who is making dairying an impor- 
tant part of his farming operations. If the dual-purpose cow 
is to be used at all, it should be on the general farm in the 
corn belt where cream is sold and skim-milk is available for 
feeding calves and pigs, and where the abundance of roughage 



32 



DAIRY FARMING 



makes it desirable to have more animals to consume it than 
the farmer is prepared to handle in the form of dairy cows. 

28 Shorthorn. The Shorthorn is probably the best 
known and most widely distributed breed of cattle. Its 
native home is northeast England in the counties of York 




Fig 5 —Doris Clay, a Shorthorn cow of the dairy type with a mnk 
record of 10,270 pounds in one year. A dual-purpose cow but showing 
more dairy characteristics than is typical. 

and Durham. The name Durham, which was formerly ap- 
phed to this breed to some extent, is explained in this way. 
As with other breeds it is not possible to tell exactly how the 
breed was originated. It is probable that the cattle brought 
from the Continent were crossed with the native Enghsh 
stock. It is certain that Holland cattle were also a factor 
in the improvement. The first systematic breeding began 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 33 

about 1780. The men best known in the early history of 
the breed are Charles and Robert CoUing, Thomas Bates, 
Thomas Booth, and, more recently, Amos Cruickshank. In 
developing this breed most attention was given to early 
maturity and good beef qualities. At the same time cer- 
tain breeders, especially Thomas Bates, were equally inter- 
ested in developing a dual-purpose, or general-purpose, ani- 
mal in which the dairy qualities and the beef characteristics 
should be well balanced. As a beef animal the Shorthorn 
ranks in the first class. Within recent times the beef quali- 
ties have been best developed in animals descended from the 
herd of Cruickshank. At the present time animals of this 
breed seen in the show ring in America are of the most 
pronounced beef type, and their popularity is based upon 
their beef qualities. Certain strains, however, have been 
developed by breeders who have maintained the milking 
characteristic of the early type, and as a result at the present 
time there is a fairly distinct milking type of pure-bred 
Shorthorns found in large numbers in England and to a 
limited extent in America. In recent years a number of 
milk and butter records have been made by cows of this 
breed that rank with the special dairy breeds. 

Herds selected and bred for dual-purpose should average 
about 5000 pounds of milk per year with a fat content of 
from 3.8 to 4 per cent. The highest record up to April 1, 
1916, is held by Rose of Glenside, 18,075 pounds of milk and 
625 pounds of fat in one year. 

The dual-purpose type does not have so good a beef 
conformation as the strains developed for beef. The beef 
animals of this breed produce more milk than does the Here- 
ford, Angus, or Galloway. The Shorthorn is more widely 
distributed than any other breed, being widely used in 



34 DAIRY FARMING , 

North and South America, South Africa,- and Australia, as 
well as in its native home. 

The colors may be pure red, pure white, red and white, or 
roan. The color cannot be taken as in any way an indication 
of the quality of the animal. The mature cows usually weigh 
about 1400 pounds but may reach 1800 pounds or more. 
They are larger than the cows of any other breed. 

Importations to America began as early as 1790, al-- 
though in small numbers until between 1830 and 1840 when 
a large number were brought into Ohio. The American 
Shorthorn Breeders' Association was established in 1882 and 
since that time has looked after the interests of the breed. 
More cattle of this breed have been registered than of any 
other. 

29. Polled Durham. Polled Durham cattle are either 
pure-bred Shorthorns or nearly so. They are of American 
origin. The " Single Standard " Polled Durhams were 
originated by crossing native mulley cows with pure-bred 
Shorthorns. After a certain number of crosses of Short- 
horn blood these animals were registered in the Polled 
Durham herdbook. The " Double Standard " Polled Dur- 
hams are so called since they are eligible to registry in the 
Shorthorn herdbook. They were originated from naturally 
mulley cows which appeared in pure-bred Shorthorns. At 
the present time the latter line of breeding has practically 
superseded the former. They are in every respect the same 
as Shorthorns except for the polled characteristics. They 
are found in considerable numbers in the Central States 
and have met with considerable favor on account of the 
polled characteristics. 

30. Red Polled. This breed is classed as dual-purpose and 
comes nearest at the present time, as a breed, to meeting the 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 



35 



definition of this classification. It is native to the counties of 
Suffolk and Norfolk in the eastern part of England. It is 
beheved by some who have studied the question that Red 
Polls are descended from cattle brought to England by the 
Danes and mixed with the native cattle. Until 1846 the 
cattle of these two counties were known as independent 
breeds, but on account of their similarity, at this date they 




Fig. 6 — Jean Duluth Beauty, a Red Polled cow, with a record of 20,280 
pounds of milk, and 892 pounds of fat in one year. A dual-purpose cow 
with a remarkable dairy record. 



were combined and have since been known as Red Polls. 
They are used in England as dual-purpose cattle. At the 
present time the breed is found mostly in the two counties 
where it originated, to some extent in Australia and New 
Zealand, and in considerable numbers in America. 

They were probably introduced into America during the 
colonial times, but it was not until after 1870 that animals 
were brought over the descendants of which have been kept 



36 DAIRY FARMING 

pure. They are most numerous in the Middle States. They 
yield a medium amount of milk, take on flesh readily, and 
make a fair grade of beef. As beef animals they do not rank 
in the first class, nor can the cows compete in milk and fat 
production with the special dairy breeds. A herd kept under 
good farm conditions may be expected to average about 5000 
pounds of milk per year, containing close to 4 per cent of fat 
on the average. A number of excellent milk records have 
been made, though none are comparable with those of the 
special dairy breeds. The cows usually weigh between 1200 
and 1300 pounds, but occasionally more ; while the bulls reach 
a weight of about a ton. In color they are a deep cherry 
red ; white may appear on the switch of the tail, on the 
udder, and a few white markings are allowed on the belly. 
White on any other part disqualifies the animal for registra- 
tion. American herds of this breed vary widely in type. 
Some breeders have given most attention to beef production. 
Other breeders have given most attention to dairy qualities. 
The proper type to maintain is a balance between these two 
extremes. The best record up to April 1, 1916, of 20,280 
pounds of milk and 892 pounds of fat is held by Jean Duluth 
Beauty. 

31. Devon. Devon cattle are commonly classed as 
dual-purpose. They were bred and developed in Devon- 
shire, England. They are thought to be one of the oldest 
of the breeds that originated in Great Britain. The Devons 
are smaller than the distinctive beef breeds, the cows weigh- 
ing from 1200 to 1300 pounds. The color is a bright red. 
The animal is blocky and compact with a noticeable refine- 
ment in bone. They are fair milk producers, yielding milk 
rich in fat, comparing favorably in this respect with the 
Jerseys. The breed is not numerous in the United States 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 37 

but is found to some extent in the Eastern States. Their 
popularity seems to be decreasing, judging from the number 
that are exhibited at fairs. 

Beef Breeds 

32. Hereford. This breed has been developed strictly 
for beef purposes. The cows are milked to a very limited 
extent. A few cows in a herd kept primarily for beef may 
be utilized to supply the family of the owner with milk, or at 
times may produce enough to make it possible to sell a 
small amount of dairy products. There are no records of 
milk production available, although it is known that the milk 
of this breed ranks rather high in richness and has much the 
same characteristics as that of the Devons. The Hereford 
probably ranks lowest in dairy qualities. As is the case 
with all beef breeds, occasionally a cow is found that is a fair 
milk producer, but she cannot be depended upon to transmit 
this characteristic. This breed is a native of Hereford in 
the south central part of England, where it has been devel- 
oped for about 150 years. The cows reach a weight of about 
1400 pounds and the bulls as high as 2200 pounds. The 
most distinctive characteristic of the breed is the white 
face, which is never absent. This is transmitted very strongly 
to practically all animals having even a small amount of Here- 
ford blood. Herefords are used mostly for grazing on the 
plains of the West and Southwest. 

33. Aberdeen-Angus. This excellent breed of beef cattle 
ranks about with the Hereford as a producer of milk. The 
cattle are always black in color and polled. Only rarely is a 
cow found that would be profitable in a dairy. These excep- 
tional cows cannot be counted upon to reproduce this charac- 
teristic in their offspring. They are bred primarily for beef, 



38 



DAIRY FARMING 



but are often used in a limited way for supplying milk for 
the use of the owners. Angus grades may even be found 
occasionally in mixed herds kept for milk. Practically no 
records of the amount or richness of milk are available. A 
limited number of fat tests made by the author indicate that 
the milk of this breed averages about 4.0 per cent of fat, or 
about the same as that of the Shorthorns. The Angus breed 
originated in northern Scotland. In America it is found 
chiefly in the corn-producing states. It has not been con- 
sidered the equal of the Hereford on the ranges. 

34. Galloway. This breed is a native of southwestern 
Scotland. The cattle are black in color, always polled, and 
are especially known for their long, thick hair, seen to the best 
advantage during the winter season in northern regions. 
They are found chiefly in the Middle States and on the ranges. 
They are strictly a beef breed. No records are available 
regarding the yield of milk or its richness. As is the case 
with other beef breeds, occasionally a reasonably good milk 
producer is found. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Which means more, to say that an animal is pure-bred or to 
say that it is registered ? 

2. Fill out a table like the following, including all breeds of cattle. 



Breed 


Native 
Home 


Horned 

OR 

Hornless 


Dairy, Dual- 
purpose 
OR Beef 


Colors 


Usual 

Weight 
Pounds 















BREEDS OF CATTLE 39 

3. Tell how each breed of cattle may be distinguished. 

4. From Tables 6, 7, 8, 9, find the percentage of solids not fat 
for the milk of each breed. 

6. How did Shorthorn cattle come to be called Durham ? 

6. What is meant by Channel Islands? 

7. On a map locate the region where each breed originated. 
Give the leading characteristics of the region as to climate, topog- 
raphy, and food supply for cattle. Which one of the regions is most 
like the region where you live ? 

8. Make a list of all the known owners of pure-bred cattle in the 
school district or region, with the breeds owned and numbers of 
each breed. 

9. Which breed of dairy cattle is most numerous in the region ? 
Which one is increasing most rapidly ? Why ? 

10. Why did so many breeds originate in Europe, and why does 
the same thing not happen in America? 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. If different breeds of cattle are available, make comparisons 
of them, and write a description of the cattle of each breed that were 
studied. The score cards given on pages 290 to 296 may be of help 
in studying each breed. 

2. Make an outline drawing of the head of a Jersey and of a 
Holstein cow as seen from the front. If possible measure the 
length and width and draw to scale. The difference in the shape 
of the head is supposed to be one indication that these breeds are 
descended from two distinct forms of wild cattle. 

COLLATERAL READING 

Breeds of Dairy Cattle, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 106. 
Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. Ill, pp. 
301-302 and 330-382. 

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, C. S. Plumb, pp. 169-332. 
Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, C. H. Eckles, pp. 27-106. 



CHAPTER 3 

SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY 

CATTLE 

C. H. ECKLES 

Selection of a Breed 

35. Selection of a Breed. One of the first questions that 
arises in starting a herd is the choice of a breed. There is a 
tendency to attach too much importance to this decision. 
In choosing a breed the following points should be con- 
sidered. 

1. Kind of cattle most common in the locality. 

2. Form in which the products are to be marketed. 

3. Topography, climate, and food supply. 

4. Preference of the breeder. 

5. Average production of milk. 

6. Average production of butter-fat. 

7. Economy of production of milk and fat. 

8. Breeding qualities of the cows. 

9. Vigor of the calves. 

10. Adaptability of the calves for veal, and beef value of 
discarded cows and bulls. 

1 1 . Original cost and probable demand for surplus animals. 
Most of the points have been discussed in the previous 

chapter. The advantages to the farmer of using the same 
kind of stock as his neighbors, should be given far greater 
prominence than his own preference or any small points of 

40 



SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 41 

difference between breeds. The advantages may be enu- 
merated as follows : 

1. May save expense in buying males for breeding, and 
make it possible to make more use of a bull that is found to 
sire especially valuable animals. 

2. It is a great advantage in selling stock, since buyers are 
attracted by large numbers of the same breed in one locality. 

3. May save expense in official testing of registered cows 
for advanced registration. 

4. Makes possible a local breed organization and creates 
greater interest in good stock and proper management. 

If the pastures are steep and rocky, the more active breeds 
are likely to be most successful. Where pastures are luxu- 
riant and where large quantities or roughage are used, the 
larger breeds are more at home. 

Between similar breeds the preference of the breeder 
may decide the choice. For example, if location and market 
would suggest the Jersey or the Guernsey as the most 
suitable, the choice between the two might be easily deter- 
mined by preference. If the dairy farmer expects to sell 
milk for market, wholesale or retail, his choice would hardly 
fall on the Channel Island breeds, unless the market is the 
exceptional one that will pay enough more for rich milk to 
justify its production. For milk production the Holstein, 
Ayrshire, or Brown Swiss would be the natural choice. On 
the other hand, if the location is such that cream is to be 
sold, then the Jersey and Guernsey breeds would come in 
for strong consideration on account of their well-known 
economical use of feed for the production of butter-fat. 
Under these conditions the probable value of skim-milk 
for pigs and for calf feeding is still another consideration 
and in some cases is sufficient to cause the choice to fall 



42 



DAIRY FARMING 



upon the Holstein on account of the large production of this 
valuable by-product. 

When selling butter-fat, cream or butter, the total qu'an- 
tity of fat and not the percentage of fat is the important 
point. For cheese making and for market milk, the total 
solids, and not fat alone are what is wanted. 

It is impossible to give data that are entirely satisfactory 
regarding the relative production of the breeds. The best 
figures the author has been able to gather are brought to- 
gether in Table 10. These are yearly records of pure-bred 
animals as reported by experiment stations in the United 
States for animals owned by them. It is assumed that the 
conditions under which these records are made are fairly 
comparable with and certainly no more favorable than those 
found in good herds owned by individuals. 

Table 10. — Production per Year of Cows Owned by Ex- 
periment Stations 



Breed 


Average Pounds 
Milk 


Average Per Cent 
Fat for Year 


Average 

Pounds 

Fat 


Number 
Cows 


Pounds 
Milk 


Number 
Cows 


Per Cent 
Fat 


Holsteins . . . 
Jerseys .... 
Shorthorns 
Red Polls . . . 
Guernseys . . 
Ayrshires . 


83 
153 
37 
9 
17 
24 


8699 
5508 
6017 
5906 
5509 
6533 


83 
154 
40 
9 
21 
24 


3.45 
5.14 
3.63 
4.03 

4.98 
3.85 


300 

283 
218 
238 
274 
252 



Individual Selection 

36. Selection of Individual Cows. The success of a dairy 
farmer depends more upon the selection of the individuals 
within the breed than it does upon the choice of a breed. 



SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 43 

The efforts of the breeder are constantly directed towards 
the development of the dairy breeds to the point where the 
characteristic of high milk production will be uniformly 
inherited. Even our poorest dairy cows give much more 
milk than was given under natural conditions. Although 
much progress has been made we must always expect many 
cows to fall below our standards because these standards 
are so far above nature. A certain number of the dairy 
cows with good parents will have inferior dairy quahties. 
No method of growing the heifer or of feeding the mature 
cow can make a naturally inferior cow into a good one. 
The cow must first of all have the tendency to use her feed 
for making milk. High production of milk results from 
selecting such a cow and then providing the proper amount 
and kind of feed. A cow of high dairy qualities will do little 
if any better than one of inferior quality unless given suffi- 
cient and suitable feed. 

There is little evidence to support the common idea that 
an inferior cow is the result of wrong methods of raising as 
a calf. Recent experiments indicate that while the size of 
the animal and possibly the vigor may be influenced b}^ the 
feeding when young, the tendency to produce milk is not 
much affected by the methods followed in raising the ani- 
mal.^ It should be clearly understood that this does not 
mean that it makes no difference how a calf is raised. It 
means that the efficiency of the cow as a milk producer is 
chiefly a matter of inheritance. Her yield of milk is the 
result of this inheritance plus the method of feeding and 
management. 

If a cow shows one year that she has inherited a tendency 
toward milk production, she can be expected to produce 

1 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 135. 



44 



DAIRY FARMING 



well for her entire lifetime. A cow that is a small pro- 
ducer by inheritance remains so year after year. The aver- 
age yearly records in Table 11, selected from many kept by 
the writer for a number of cows for a term of years, indicate 
this fact. Some variation occurs, but Table 11 shows that 

Table 11. — Yield of Butter-fat of Different Individuals 

BY Years in Pounds 



Breed 


First 


Second 


Third 


Fourth 


Fifth 


Sixth 


Seventh 


Year 


Year 


Year 


Year 


Year 


Year 


Year 


Jersey 


296 


416 


468 


499 


580 






Jersey 


44 


115 


169 


159 








Jersey 


336 


452 


545 


425 


440 






Jersey 


62 


171 


123 








/ 


Holstein .... 


282 


323 


330 


450 


380 


373 


390 


Holstein .... 


151 


167 


210 











the good cows were good producers year after year, while 
the inferior ones remained poor just as regularly. Occasion- 
ally a cow has a poor year because she is out of condition, 
but normally the results will be uniform when the feed and 
care are the same. 

37. Extent of Variation of Individuals. An abundance 
of data has been gathered within recent years to make it 
plain that the variation of individuals as milk producers 
is the greatest single factor in the success of the dairy. 
The Connecticut Experiment Station found the five most 
profitable in their herd were fed a year at a cost of $56.54 
each, while the five poorest consumed feed worth $52.02. 
The best five averaged 304 pounds of fat for the year, and 
the poorest five 189 pounds. One group lacked $4.09 per 
cow of paying for their feed. The other group gave $26.91 
per cow above the cost of feed. For $4.52 in additional feed 



SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 45 





Fig. 7. — An example of wide variation in production. These cows 
are registered Jerseys and half sisters. The one above averaged 418 
pounds of fat for the first three years in milk. With the same treatment 
the one below averaged 109 pounds of fat for the same three years. The 
variation in the production was due to inherited characteristics. 



46 DAIRY FARMING 

the animals in the better group produced 115 pounds more 
fat each.^ Reports from the Southern States for 719 cows, 
covering in each case a full year, show that for each $1.00 
invested in feed the best 10 cows gave returns of $2.20, while 
the poorest 10 cows barely returned the value of the feed. 
The best 30 cows produced three and a half times as much as 
the poorest animals. ^ 

In the University of Missouri herd one pure-bred Jersey 
averaged 480 pounds of fat per year for three years, while 
her half sister averaged 114 pounds for the same period. 
A test of 18 Illinois herds, including 226 cows, showed the 
best herd to average 389 pounds of fat and the poorest 142.^ 

38. The High-producing Cows More Economical Pro- 
ducers. A striking fact brought out by all such figures is that 
the high producers will give a greater return from the same 
amount of feed. It costs from $10 to $15 more per year to 
feed the cow that produces 350 pounds of fat than it costs to 
feed the cow that yields 200 pounds. It is a common mis- 
take to assume that it costs no more to feed a cow producing 
10,000 pounds of milk per year than it does to feed one yielding 
5000 pounds of milk of the same quality. The larger producer 
must use more feed, but not double that used by the smaller. 
The former will use about 25 per cent more feed than the 
latter, while the production of milk is 100 per cent more. 
In many herds that have not been carefully culled, a greater 
total profit might be realized by retaining one-half to two- 
thirds of the herd and disposing of the inferior cows, but a 
still better return may come from replacing the poor cows 
by good ones. 

1 Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 29. 

2 tJ. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Animal Industry, 25th Annual Report, p. 67. 

3 Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Circular 102. 



SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 47 

Selection by Type 

39. How Individual Selection is Made. There are in 
general two methods of selecting dairy cows. The first is 
by type or conformation, and the second is by records of 
production. There is undoubtedly a certain conformation 
that generally goes with high milk production. This con- 
formation is generally distinct enough to enable experienced 
judges to select very good from very inferior cows. As a 
rule it is fairly easy to select cows that will yield 300 to 350 
pounds of fat per year from those that will give half that 
amount. It is not possible, however, to judge by this means 
alone which one will produce 300 and which one 500 pounds 
per year. Often even experienced judges will make decided 
errors in selecting animals by this method, especially if the 
cow is not in the most favorable condition to be judged. 
Since records are available for very few cows offered for sale, 
it is necessary for most cattle buyers to depend largely upon 
type. 

If it were possible to select all cows when giving their 
largest yield of milk, judging by type would be reasonably 
accurate. Under practical conditions this is not possible, 
and cows have to be selected that vary from dry to the high- 
est milk flow. The appearance of a dry cow gives little 
indication of her merits. 

40. The Dairy Type. The three striking points in the 
conformation of a highly developed dairy cow are : 

1. The spare angular form, carrying no surplus flesh 
but showing evidence of liberal feeding in her vigorous 
condition. 

2. The extraordinary size and development of the udder 
and milk veins. 




YiG, 8. — These pure-bred Jerseys illustrate a wide range in type and 
also the relation of tvpe to production. The cow above shows good type. 
A large barrel with plenty of depth from hips to the udder, well-developed 
udder and milk veins. She produced 592 pounds of fat m a year. 

The animal below, although perfectly healthy, is very shallow in body, 
has a small barrel, and an extremely small udder; she produced 122 
pounds of fat in a year. 



SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 49 

3. The marked development of the barrel in proportion 
to the size of the animal. 

A high-class dairy cow rarely carries much flesh when in 
full flow of milk. At the same time her alert vigorous ap- 





Steer at middle of barrel. 



Steer at heart girth. 





Dairy cow at middle of barrel 



Dairy cow at heart girth. 



Fig. 9. — Cross section of a fat steer compared with that of a high-class 
dairy cow. Notice the large abdomen, bony back, and sharp withers of the 
cow. The skeleton of the steer is more fully covered with flesh. 



E 



50 



DAIRY FARMING 



pearance, her soft pliable skin and soft hair show that she is 
not thin on account of a lack of feed. An animal thin in 
flesh on account of insufficient feed has a stupid appearance 
and shows a lack of vigor, while the hair generally is rough 
and stands on end. In either case the paunch may be large 
or small, depending on the bulkiness of the feed consumed. 

So characteristic is the 
angular appearance of the 
dairy cow that an animal 
that does not show this 
form -when in full flow of 
milk should not be selected. 
When the cow is near the 
end of the lactation period, 
or is dry, she should carry 
more flesh, and it is a mis- 
take to be too quick to con- 
demn a cow at this stage 
for being too beefy. 

The well-developed beef 

animal on the other hand is 

square and blocky. The general shape, leaving the legs 

and head out of consideration, is rectangular. The back is 

broad and level, the thighs full and straight. 

This difference in the shape of the body of a high-class 
dairy cow and of a fat steer ready for market is shown by the 
cross sections in Fig. 9. These were obtained by a device 
that made it possible to get the exact outlines. 

41. The Udder. A well-developed udder is the most 
important characteristic to be considered in selecting a cow 
for milk production. Since this gland has the function of 
secreting the milk, its size and development are of the great- 




FiG. 10. — A well-formed udder. 
Note the length of attachment to the 
body, and the well-developed fore- 
quarters. 



SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 51 




est importance in judging the milk-producing ability of the 

cow. It is not alone size, but active secreting cells that 

count. For this reason a meaty hard udder that remains 

nearly as large after milking as before is of little value. The 

udder should have a long attachment to the body, extending 

well up in the rear and well forward in front. The quarters 

should be even in size without 

deep indentations between, and 

the teats should be of proper size 

for convenient milking and evenly 

placed. When the cow is dry, it 

is impossible to judge accurately 

of the development of the udder. 

However, a large amount of loose 

skin showing an abundance of 

room for expansion when the 

udder is filled may be taken 

as an indication that the udder 

will develop in a satisfactory manner. Little can be judged 

regarding the future size and shape of the udder in the calf 

or heifer until the time for calving approaches. 

42. The Milk Veins and Milk Wells. Large milk veins 
are one of the indications of high milk production that should 
be given careful attention. The blood after passing through 
the udder and supplying the cells with material for secreting 
milk starts back towards the heart through the milk veins. 
The name, of course, is a misnomer since they carry blood, 
not milk. One of these opens on either side near the front 
of the udder and passes forward just beneath the skin. These 
veins crook back and forth and sometimes separate into 
two or more divisions and finally pass upward through 
the wall of the abdomen into the body cavity. The por- 



FiG. 11. — A well-formed 
udder. Figs. 10 and 11 are 
both high-producing cows. 



52 



DAIRY FARMING 



tions of the veins from the udder to the openings through 
which they pass into the abdomen are spoken of as the milk 
veins. The openings are known as the milk wells. The 
milk veins are one of the most reliable indications of dairy 
quality, since a large milk production calls for a large flow 




Fig. 12. — Udder of an inferior cow. 
This udder is large and well shaped but 
meaty, and is nearly as large after milking 
as before. 



Fig. 13. — A very pendulous 
udder, objectionable because it 
interferes with the cow when 
walking, and because it easily 
becomes soiled. 



of blood to the udder, and large milk veins indicate such a 
circulation. 

43. The Barrel. The term barrel is applied in general 
to that portion of a cow's body between the hind and fore 
legs. The dairy cow to be a heavy producer must consume 
enormous quantities of feed. To do this requires large or- 
gans of digestion. A high -producing cow has wide-sprung 
ribs and a deep abdomen, giving great capacity for the di- 
gestive tract and other vital organs. 



SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 53 

An animal lacking in barrel cannot use sufficient feed to 
make her a large producer. The age of the animal has some 
influence upon the size of the barrel. The apparent capacity 
is also influenced to some extent by the ration fed. Bulky 
feeds, such as hay and silage, when fed in large quantities 
give this effect. In considering the barrel development of a 
cow the depth as viewed from the side should be observed, 
then the width as viewed from behind. Some animals show 




Fig. 14. — A typical weak Fig. 15. — Udder showing poor devel- 
fore udder, a very common opment behind, and short attachment to 
defect. the body. 

great depth but on account of being narrow really have a small 
capacity. In short a dairy cow should show great vigor, 
great capacity to use food, and should have a strong de- 
velopment of the milk-secreting organs, indicating that she 
is likely to use the food for milk production. 

44. The Score Card. The score cards adopted by the vari- 
ous breed associations are shown on pages 290 to 296. These 
are designed to set forth the desirable characteristics of the 
breed and may be studied as a means of becoming familiar 
with breed types. The preceding discussion of the dairy 
type is general and applies to all breeds. It is based wholly 
upon the indications of milk production and does not take 



54 



DAIRY FARMING 



into account the many smaller points that go to make up a 
conformation that is symmetrical and pleasing to the eye. 
The breed associations in preparing their score cards, in 





Fig. 16. — Defective udders. The one on the left is that of a pure-bred 
dairy cow that produced only 10 pounds of milk daily. This udder is ex- 
tremely small, ill-shaped, weak in the forequarters, and the teats are too 
short. The one on the right has very small capacity with almost no de- 
velopment in the forequarters. 

certain cases, apparently emphasize points in which the 
breed is likely to be deficient. An example of this is the 
large number of points given to the fore udder in the Jersey 
score card. Before using the score card the student should 




Fig. 17. — A well-developed milk vein. On this cow the milk vein is 
over one inch in diameter and extends forward nearly to the front legs, 
entering the body through three milk wells on each side. The veins on 
the udder are also very prominent. 



SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 55 










Teats 
Milk 
Milk 




CO t^ CO 
1— 1 1-^ I— 1 




Hips 

Thigh 

Udder 




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1— 1 i-H f-!< 


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56 DAIRY FARMING 

be familiar with the points of the animal as illustrated in 
Fig. 18. The use of the score card is an advantage to the 
beginner as a means of impressing the points to be taken into 
account and their relative importance. It helps to make the 
examination systematic and prevents one from forgetting 
points that should be observed. The value of the score 
card decreases as experience is gained. Judging in the show 
ring is done entirely by comparison. 

The score card given on page 77 is in use by the Depart- 
ment of Dairy Husbandry, University of Missouri, and is 
an attempt to give the points that are important in teaching 
the selection of dairy cows for milk production. It gives 
comparatively little attention to the smaller details of con- 
formation or to breed type. 

Selection by Performance Records 

45. Selection by Records. While it is often necessary 
to select cows by appearances when buying, it is not neces- 
sary to follow this plan after the animals are in the herd. A 
more business-like plan is to keep a record of production for 
each individual in order that the unprofitable animals may 
be known and rejected. The records to be kept will depend 
to some extent upon the use made of the milk. If it is sold 
by quantity regardless of quality, then the total production 
is the important fact. If the price of milk is based upon the 
butter-fat, both the quantity and the quahty need to be 
known. 

46. Overrating the Importance of Rich Milk. A com- 
mon mistake in judging cows by records is attaching too much 
importance to the percentage of fat. The cow that produces 
the richest milk does not necessarily give the largest amount 
of fat, nor does it follow that she is the most economical pro- 



SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 57 



ducer. It is the total amount of fat that counts where fat 
is the basis of market value. Figures selected from accurate 
records kept by the author show the relation between the 
yield of milk, the percentage of fat, and the total fat yield. 

Table 12. — Rich Milk vs. High Fat Production for the 

Year 



Breed 


Yield Milk 


Average Per Cent 
Fat 


Total Fat 
Yield 




Pounds 




Pounds 


Jersey 


2,796 


6.29 


176 


Jersey . 








3,188 


5.31 


169 


Jersey . 








13,895 


4.90 


681 


Jersey . 








2,849 


4.42 


126 


[iolstein 








18,405 


3.36 


618 


Holsteiii 








6,387 


3.26 


208 


Holstein 








26,861 


2.76 


741 



These figures show that the highest percentage of fat is often 
accompanied by a low total yield. On the other hand a low 
percentage of fat may go with either a high or a low milk yield. 
The figures given, which are some of the extremes taken 
from the records of a large herd, also indicated clearly that 
the amount of milk varies much more than the percentage of 
fat. For this reason it is far more important to know how 
much milk a cow gives than to know its richness. If all the 
animals in a herd belong to the same breed, it is about three 
times as important to know the quantity as it is to have 
records of the richness, even where milk is sold by the fat 
content. For this reason the keeping of individual records 
of cows should always begin with the use of the scales. The 
cow owner should keep the records by weight and not by 
measure, and become accustomed to thinking of milk yields 
in terms of weights. 



58 



DAIRY FARMING 



CL 




Three things should be known in order that the relative 
profits of each animal may be calculated. These are the 
amount of milk, the percentage of fat, and the cost of feed 
consumed. When comparing individual animals these factors 
rank in importance in the order given. 
While cows should be fed according to 
their production, it is not generally 
practical to keep an individual feed 
record of each. The best plan on the 
farm is to know the cost of feeding the 
entire herd and the total income above 
feed, and then make such calculations 
as may seem necessarj- to determine 
whether certain low-producing cows 
should be kept. 

47. Complete Milk Records. The 
most satisfactory plan of keeping records 
is to weigh the milk of each cow daily. 
This does not require much extra time 
when proper arrangements are made. 
The experience of every one who has 
tried it is that no time spent on the farm 
pays better. A spring balance, graduated 
to pounds and tenths, should be provided 
and placed at a point convenient for the 
milkers with the milk sheet close at hand. 
The advantages of daily weighing maj^ be smnmed up as 
follows : 

1. It makes it possible to reject the unprofitable cows. 

2. Makes possible economic feeding. Individual cows 
should be fed in proportion to the amount of milk they 
produce. 




Fig. 19. — A good 
scale for weighing milk. 
The second pointer is 
set to read zero when 
the empty pail is at- 
tached. 



SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 59 

3. Enables the herdsman to detect sickness. Often the 
first indication that a cow is out of condition is seen on the 
milk sheet. 

4. Makes it possible to judge of the work of different 
milkers. 

5. Creates interest among the milkers that results in better 
work on their part. 

When milk records are kept in this form it is recommended 
that a sample covering two or three days be taken for a 
Babcock test. This sample is tested for fat, and the result 
considered the average for the month. 

Some dairymen weigh the milk on the first and fifteenth 
of each month or at other stated intervals. From these 
weights the yearly production may be estimated fairly ac- 
curately, but the other advantages of daily weighing are 
enough to make daily weighing preferable. In large herds 
there is no way for the manager to keep close track of the 
business except by daily weighing. 

48. Taking Samples for Testing. Where many cows 
are in milk, the most convenient way of taking a sample is 
with a sampling tube. If a tube is not at hand, a satisfactory 
sample may be prepared by taking equal quantities of milk 
from each milking with a very small dipper or spoon, and 
placing them in a jar. The milk should be well stirred be- 
fore the sample is taken. Pint glass jars with tightly fitting 
covers are used to hold the samples. One is provided for 
each cow and is marked with her name or number. Ex- 
cept in very cold weather some preservative is used to keep 
the milk from souring before it is tested. For this purpose 
formalin, which may be purchased at any drug store, is best. 
Ten drops is sufficient to keep a sample for several days. 
The sample when complete is tested with the Babcock test. 



60 



DAIRY FARMING 



MILK RECORD «» thcoonth emwno. 



NAnE AND NUnBER OF ANin«L 



-7 An 



Q An 
9 pj^ 



102 



..ATI 

n p.n 



12 



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lop/i 



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30^S 



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TITM.RM nONTH 
KICfMT. FAT 



Fig. 20. — Form for daily milk record sheet. 



SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 61 

The reading gives the butter-fat per 100 pounds of milk. 
When butter is made, some curd, salt, and considerable 
water remain with the fat to make up normal marketable 
butter. The amount of butter generally exceeds the fat 
by about one-sixth and may be estimated if desired by add- 
ing this amount to the fat. 

49. Averaging Tests. A common mistake results from 
averaging tests. A direct average of the tests made for a 
certain cow each month during the year will not be a fair 
average test of the total amount of milk produced during 
the year by this animal. This results from the fact that 
the amount of milk represented by each test is not the same. 
To find the true average test for the year the total fat yield 
for the period covered by the tests must be divided by the 
total yield of milk. The same method must be used in get- 
ting the average test for the herd. 

50. Permanent Records. Many who begin keeping records 
do not make much of a success on account of not having a 
suitable form for a permanent record. Fig. 22 is a form 
that has been used with good satisfaction by the author for 
a number of years. 

Using a blank book, a page may be ruled for each cow. 
Space sufficient for several years may be provided in this 
way in a concise form. In pure-bred herds the pedigree and 
records of offspring may be put on the page opposite the 
milk records. 

51. Cow-testing Associations. Keeping records, es- 
pecially of a large herd, involves considerable attention to 
details. To provide for this, cooperative cow-testing associ- 
ations have been estabhshed in many places. This plan 
originated in Denmark in 1895, and the number of associ- 
ations has since increased with great rapidity. At present 



62 



DAIRY FARMING 



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SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 



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64 DAIRY FARMING 

over 400 associations are in operation in that country and 
probably an equal number in other countries of Europe. 

These associations are formed by groups of farmers own- 
ing from 500 to 1000 cows. A man is employed who goes 
from farm to farm spending a day at each. He weighs the 
milk from each cow and tests it for fat content. He cal- 
culates the yield of each cow for the month, the cost of feed, 
and income above feed cost. He also advises the farmer 
as far as possible regarding methods of feeding and other 
details. The cost is usually from $1 to $1.50 per cow each 
year. In a few cases in the United States the man who does 
the testing also keeps a full set of cost accounts for the farm. 

52. Advanced Registry. One of the important factors 
in the improvement of dairy cattle is the system of advanced 
registration as conducted by the associations representing 
the different dairy breeds. The ordinary registration of 
animals insures the purity of their breeding, but does not 
indicate their individual merits. Advanced registration 
gives an accurate record of the production. Cows must be 
registered in the herdbook before the tests are made. If 
the production reaches or exceeds a certain standard, they 
are registered again in another series. This is called advanced 
registration. The weighing of the milk and the testing for 
fat are done by representatives of the experiment station 
in the state where the cow is owned. This insures an ac- 
curate record made by a disinterested person. 

Many changes in the rules and requirements have been 
made for the various breeds since the system was begun in 
1890. At present the standards set by the different breeds 
are not uniform, and occasional changes are made, so it is 
necessary for a breeder of pure-bred cattle to become familiar 
with the rules and practices governing his breed at the time. 



SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 65 

In general it may be said, that while formerly most of the tests 
made covered seven days only, now all the tests except for 
Holsteins cover a full year. Where the year test is made, 
the owner weighs the milk each milking and the experiment 
station man weighs and tests it for fat two days each month. 
The average percentage of fat for the two days is taken as the 
average for the month. The Holstein breeders still use the 
seven-day plan most extensively, although many year tests are 
also made. 

Where a seven-day test is made, a two-year-old cow must 
produce 8 pounds of fat for advanced registration. The 
amount required increases with the age of the cow. A 
five-year-old must produce 12 pounds or more of fat to be 
entered. The minimum for a year varies from 214 to 250 
pounds of fat with the several breeds for two-year-olds, and 
for mature cows varies from 322 to 360 pounds. 

The great value of the advanced registration system is the 
possibility it affords of putting the selection of breeding 
animals upon a sound basis. In selecting a male for breed- 
ing purposes, the pedigrees of its ancestors form about the 
only basis for judgment as to the probable character of its 
offspring. If the records show the production of each cow 
in the pedigree, it becomes possible to judge the value of the 
animal fairly accurately. Advanced registration is un- 
questionably the strongest factor now in operation for the 
rapid improvement of dairy cattle. The great mass of dairy 
cattle are not, and need not be, registered animals, and hence 
are not eUgible to advanced registration. However, the 
system is equally valuable for grades, since improvement is 
transmitted to grade herds by the pure-bred sires. The 
addresses of the different breed associations are given on page 
289. Further information can be obtained from them. 



66 



DAIRY FARMING 



The following list includes the cows having fat records 
of 950 pounds or more in a year up to April 1, 1916 : 



Name of Cow 



Duchess Skylark Ormsby 
Finderne Pride Johanna 

Rue 

Finderne Hohngen Fayne 
Murne Cowan .... 
Ona Button DeKol . . 

May Rilma 

Banostine Belle DeKol 
Pontiac Clothilde DeKol 2d 
Sophia 19th of Hood 

Farm 

High-Lawn Hartog De 

Kol 

Colantha 4th's Johanna 
Spermfield Owl's Eva 
Lothian Maggie DeKol 
Maple Crest Pontiac 

Flora Hartog 
Milanhurst America De- 
Kol 

Crown Pontiac Josey 
Maple Crest Pontiac 

Spotted Annie . . 
Pearl Longfield DeKol 
Caroline Paul Parthenea 
Eminent's Bess 
Daisy Grace DeKol 
Finderne Mutual Fayne 
Spots wood Daisy Pearl 
Lily of Willowmoor . 
Jacoba Irene .... 
Tilly Alcartra .... 



Breed 


Milk in 
1 Year 


Fat in 
1 Year 


Holstein 


27,762 


1205 


Holstein 


28,404 


1176 


Holstein 


24,613 


1116 


Guernsey 


24,008 


1098 


Holstein 


26,761 


1076 


Guernsey 


19,673 


1073 


Holstein 


27,404 


1058 


Holstein 


25,318 


1017 


Jersey 


17,558 


999 


Holstein 


25,592 


998 


Holstein 


27,432 


998 


Jersey 


16,457 


993 


Holstein 


27,968 


991 


Holstein 


25,106 


986 


Holstein 


26,433 


985 


Holstein 


28,752 


982 


Holstein 


21,393 


981 


Holstein 


28,050 


972 


Holstein 


25,073 


967 


Jersey 


18,783 


963 


Holstein 


21,718 


963 


Holstein 


22,150 


961 


Guernsey 


18,603 


957 


Ayrshire 


22,596 


956 


Jersey 


17,253 


953 


Holstein 


30,451 


951 



State in 
WHICH Owned 



Minn. 

N. J. 
N.J. 
Ohio 

Penn. 
Ohio 
N. Y. 

Mass. 

Ohio 
Wis. 
Mass. 
Ohio 

Ohio 

N. Y. 
N. Y. 

Ohio 

Wis. 

Wis. 

Mich. 

Ohio 

N. J. 

Ohio 

Wash. 

111. 

Cal. 



53. Relation of Age of Cow to Yield and Richness of 
Milk. Under ordinary farm conditions the dairy cow fresh- 
ens the first time at from 24 to 30 months of age. On an 



SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 



67 




68 



DAIRY FARMING 



average the production of milk for the lactation period in- 
creases each year until the cow is about five years old, after 
which the production remains fairly constant until the 
animal reaches at least 11 or 12 years. 

On the average a well-grown two-year-old may be expected 
to produce 70 per cent, a three-year-old 80 per cent, and a four- 
year-old 90 per cent of the milk and fat that she will pro- 



8000 
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 

LACTATION PfRIOD 

Fig. 24. — Influence of age on yield of milk and percentage of fat, 
averages for six Jersey cows for twelve years. 

duce when mature. The highest production for a year may 
come anywhere between the 4th and 11th year. Two-year- 
olds that are not well grown may not give over half as much 
as when mature. If a cow continues to breed, her milk 
flow usually shows little decline until she is 12 years old and 
sometimes even older. Probably the majority of dairy cattle 
are rejected from the herd on account of failure to breed, 
or from udder troubles before the effect of advancing years can 
be observed to have had any effect upon the milk production. 



SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 69 

The richness of milk is less affected by age than is the quan- 
tity. The average fat content remains practically constant 
from year to year except that after the cow is eight or nine 
years old the percentage of fat always declines slowly and 
gradually with advancing years. A Jersey cow, for example, 
that averages 5.0 per cent fat when in her prime will decline 
to about 4.5 per cent when 12 to 15 years of age. The fol- 



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flot 


iHtr, 








^-. 


^^ 








. 


^ 










^""^ff- 








-^ 


X 


V, 








•«-, 






^ 


ptSi 


iSi- 


r^ft'- 


"^ 










■~^ 




^ 


:^ 



































5.00 



4.50 



-4.00 



20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 
DAYS IN MILK 

Fig. 25. — Influence of the advance in lactation period upon the milk 
yield and fat content, averages for ten mature cows and ten two-year-old 
heifers. 



lowing gives the average percentages of fat by lactation 
periods for four Jerseys the records of which are complete 
for 9 years. 

Lactation period .123456789 
Per cent fat . . 4.89 4.82 4.96 4.64 4.62 4.62 4.57 4.49 4.39 



Selection of a Bull 

54. The Selection of the Bull. The successful develop- 
ment of a dairy herd depends more upon the selection of the 
bull than on any other one thing, unless it be the proper 
culling out of inferior cows^ One-half the inheritance of each 
young animal in the herd comes from the bull, and for this 
reason his influence on the herd is far greater than is that of 



70 



DAIRY FARMING 



one cow who will have at most only a few daughters. This 
is the basis of the old but true saying, '' the bull is half the 
herd." 

The main opportunity for improvement in a native or 
mediocre herd is by using a good sire. For example, one 



1 


• ! 


■&'«■ 









Fig. 26. — An excellent three-quarters-bred cow, showing what a pure- 
bred sire can do in two generations. The grandmother of this cow was 
a rather poor milker. She herself produced in nine years, beginning 
when she was two years old, 96,800 pounds of milk and 3814 pounds of 
butter.i 



bull might be the sire of 20 daughters in a herd in one year. 
If the dams be capable of producing only 200 pounds of fat 
yearly, and if the sire represents a breed or strain the cows 
of which are capable of producing 350 pounds of fat per year, 
it is evident that, if the daughters averaged only half way 
between, there would be an increase of 75 pounds per cow 

1 The Cornell Reading-courses, Vol. Ill, No. 54, p. 53. 



SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 71 

annually. It is not at all uncommon to find even greater 
differences than this in actual practice. 

The first cross of improved blood makes the offspring one- 
half, the second, three-fourths, the third, seven-eighths of 
the same blood as the improved breed. The continued use 
of pure-bred sires of the same breed for 10 to 15 years will 
change a scrub herd until it will have essentially the same 
characteristics as the improved breed. The careful breeder 
gives a great deal of thought to the selection of the sire for 
his herd. The more skilled the breeder, the greater the care 
taken in this respect. Almost any pure-bred bull will im- 
prove a scrub herd, but only the bull of the best inheritance 
will increase or even maintain the standard of a highly de- 
veloped herd. 

55. Difference in Transmission of Dairy Qualities by 
Different Bulls. There is a wide variation in the way 
different bulls transmit dairy qualities. This fact is 
illustrated by the data in Table 13, compiled by the author 
from the records of the Jersey herd owned by the University 
of Missouri. This herd is descended from three cows. Com- 
plete milk and butter-fat records for 21 years make these 
comparisons possible. The comparisons are made in each case 
between the production of the daughters of the various sires 
used and the dam of these daughters. The figure 4381, for 
example, given as the milk production of the daughters of 
Missouri Rioter is an average of the production of each 
daughter which is found in turn by taking the average of all 
the lactation periods of the particular animal. If in any case 
the daughter had only three or fewer lactation periods, the 
comparison is between those and the corresponding periods 
for the dam. 



72 



DAIRY FARMING 



Table 13. — Influence of the Sire Shown by a Comparison 
OF THE Records of Daughters with Dams 





Averages for all Lactation Periods 




Dams 


Daughters 


Missouri Rioter 






Milk Yield 


5380 


4381 


Per cent fat 


4.35 


4.93 


Yield of fat 


234 


216 


Hugorotus 






Milk yield 


4969 


4576 


Per cent fat 


4.66 


5.35 


Yield of fat 


231 


245 


Lome of Meridale 






Milk yield 


4559 


6050 


Per cent fat 


4.85 


4.81 


Yield of fat ' 


221 


291 


Missouri Rioter 3rd 






Milk yield 


4775 


8005 


Per cent fat 


4.98 


4.80 


Yield of fat 


238 


384 


Minette's Pedro 






Milk yield 


5321 


5376 


Per cent fat 


5.03 


5.04 


Yield of fat 


268 


271 


Daisy's Prince of St. Lambert 






Milk yield 


5362 


3932 


Per cent fat 


5.07 


5.03 


Yield of fat 


269 


198 


Brown Bessie's Registrar 






Milk yield 


6069 


4607 


Per cent fat 


4.94 


4.97 


Yield of fat 


300 


229 


Fairy's Lad 






Milk yield 


6219 


6169 


Per cent fat 


4.80 


5.24 


Yield of fat 


299 


323 



SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 73 

Many interesting comparisons may be made of the com- 
parative values of these bulls. For example, the daughters 
of Lome of Meridale averaged 1491 pounds of milk more 
per year for their entire lifetime than did their dams. Eleven 
out of thirteen were superior to their dams. If thirty 
daughters of this bull had been milked in one herd, their 
production would have exceeded that of their dams by 44,730 
pounds per year. At SI. 50 per 100 pounds the income would 
be $671 per year more for the thirty daughters than for their 
mothers. If the animals were daughters of Missouri Rioter, 
they would have produced 999 pounds each less than their 
dams or a total of 29,970 pounds less milk than their mothers 
in a year. At $1.50 per 100 pounds this would be a decrease 
of $450. It would then make a difference of $1121 per year 
whether these thirty cows be daughters of Missouri Rioter 
or Lome of Meridale. If we make the coiliparison directly 
from the average yield of the daughters, the difference would 
be 50,070 pounds of milk per year worth $751 at $1.50 per 
100 pounds. If the greatest extremes be taken for compar- 
ison, as Missouri Rioter 3d and Missouri Rioter, the dif- 
ference is far greater. 

56. Methods of Selecting a Bull. There are two ways of 
selecting a bull : 

1. On the basis of his pedigree and appearance. 

2. From the records of his daughters. 

The pedigree is the most reliable means of judging the 
probable value of a young bull. The system of advanced 
registration now in use makes it possible to obtain reUable 
information concerning the dairy qualities of most of the 
registered animals. In selecting a young bull one should 
have these records before him. The points to be considered 
are especially the records of the cows that are the close an- 



74 DAIRY FARMING 

cestors of the bull. It should also be observed to what 
extent the bulls have sired high-producing cows. A well- 
bred bull should have a large number of these records in his 
pedigree. 

Many persons overvalue an animal that carries a small 
fraction of the blood of one noted animal. A pedigree that 
shows moderately good parents and grandparents is better 
than one that has one or two unusually good ancestors and 
the rest mediocre. A noted animal farther back than grand- 
parents has no very great significance if the nearer relatives 
are not good. 

It is doubtful if the conformation or appearance of the 
bull in any way indicates his value as a sire of superior milk- 
ing cows. On the other hand it is possible to judge from his 
conformation to some extent as to the probable type of his 
daughters. The only really safe plan for the owner of a 
highly developed herd is to select a bull having daughters 
in milk so that he may know the characteristics that the 
bull transmits to his offspring. This, of course, can only 
be done in a few cases but is always advisable when possible. 
Care must be taken not to introduce disease by obtaining 
a bull from a diseased herd. 

57. Cross-breeding. Crossing means the mixing of the 
blood of two distinct breeds. It is a practice that is com- 
mon among American farmers. The object sought is to 
combine the most desirable characteristics of the two breeds. 
The practice has nothing to recommend it. Breeds have 
been developed and are kept pure in order that certain char- 
acteristics may be transmitted regularly to the offspring. 
When two distinct breeds are crossed the chain of inheritance 
is broken and all possible combinations of the characteristics 
of the two breeds appear. For example, a farmer having 



SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 75 



Jersey cattle may become dissatisfied with the milk yield 
and cross them with Holsteins, expecting to combine the 
Jersey quahty of rich milk with the Holstein characteristic of 
a large milk yield. Some animals may show this combi- 
nation, while just as many may inherit a low yield from the 
Jersey parent and a low percentage of fat from the Holstein. 
The proper course is first to select the breed that best meets 
the requirements, and then to continue along this line unless 
it is found after sufficient trial that a serious error has been 
made. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Calculate the average percentage of fat for the year for two 
cows making the following records by months : 







Cow 1 


Cow 2 




Pounds Milk 


Per Cent Fat 


Pounds Milk 


Per Cent Fat 


January. . 


631 


3.4 


140 


4.5 


February 




600 


3.3 








March . 




450 


3.8 


1040 


4.0 


April . . 




440 


3.5 


1800 


3.3 


May . . 




390 


4.0 


1850 


3.0 


June . . 




280 


4.0 


1720 


3.2 


July . . 




140 


4.3 


1500 


3.0 


August . 










1450 


3.0 


September 




950 


4.0 


1480 


3.2 


October . 




1280 


3.2 


1200 


3.4 


November 




1356 


3.4 


1000 


3.8 


December 




1280 


3.7 


600 


4.0 



2. Compare the multiplicity of breeds in one neighborhood in 
this country with conditions in Europe. 

3. What advantages are there in having one breed only in a 
community ? 

4. Are there any breeders' organizations in your county or state ? 

5. Are there any cow-testing associations in your county or 
state? If so, obtain any published results that are available. 



76 



DAIRY FARMING 



What differences in production are found for different cows in the 
same herd ? 

6. Define lactation period. 

7. Do you know any farmer in the region who weighs the milk 
from each cow? 

8. Distinguish between rich milk and high yield of butter-fat. 

9. How is milk sold in this region, by pound, quart, or on butter- 
fat basis ? 

10. What is the object of having distinct breeds and keeping 
them pure? 

11. What is the distinction between a grade and a cross-bred 
animal ? 

12. Who in this county owns any advanced registry cows? 

13. If a Jersey heifer calved at two years of age and in a year pro- 
duced 3000 pounds of milk, testing 5 per cent fat, how much milk 
can she be expected to produce when mature ? What will her yearly 
production of butter-fat probably be? Compare with the average 
for experiment station herds. Is she a good heifer ? 

14. Considering the proportion of fat to remain the same when 
the heifer becomes a cow, complete the following table. Consider 
the average butter-fat production of the experiment station herds of 
the breed as 100 per cent when filling the last column. Which ones 
are good animals ? 







Age at 
Freshen- 
ing 


Production in Fol- 
lowing Year 


Probable 
Fat Pro- 
duction 
PER Year 
when 
Mature 


Comparison 
WITH Ex- 
periment 
Station 
Herds 


Breed 


Milk 


Per 

Cent 
Fat 


Total 
Fat 


Holstein 
Holstein 
Holstein 
Jersey . 
Jersey . 
Guernsey 
Guernsey 
Shorthorn 




3 

7 

3 

6 

31 

5 

2 


7022 
7506 
8321 
3472 
5743 
4113 
4223 
5342 


3.7 
3.8 
3.4 
4.9 
5.1 
5.2 
4.8 
4.0 









15. From the figures given on page 17 does there seem to be any 
danger of over-production of pure-bred cattle in the near future ? 



SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 77 



Score Card for Dairy Cows 



Scale of Points 



INDICATING EFFICIENCY OF MILK 
SECRETING SYSTEM 
Udder — large, evenly quartered, well 
held up, not meaty, attachments long, 
teats squarely placed, and of conven- 
ient size 

Milk Veins — capacious, entering large 
wells 



INDICATING CAPACITY 

Muzzle — wide 

Jaw — wide in angle, strong .... 

Barrel — • deep, wide, long, well held up, 
with ribs broad, long, far apart, slant- 
ing, well sprung . 

INDICATING CONSTITUTIONAL 
STRENGTH AND VIGOR 
Nostril — large, expanded 

Eye — prominent, bright, intelligent 

Chest — ■ wide, deep 



Skeleton — developed for strength, of 
good quality: roomy, long, and level 
at pelvis 



Skin — loose and mellow showing good 
circulation and secretion .... 

Carriage — energetic, prompt, alert . 



INDICATING DAIRY TEMPERAMENT 

Body wedge shape. General appearance 
angular and lean, yet clean-cut and 
neat in every part 

BREED TYPE 

Points characteristic of the particular 
breed, such as size, color, temperament, 
ruggedness of build, etc 

SCORE 



Per 

Cent 



30 



10 



40 



23 



25 



15 



10 



10 



Cow's Number 



Fill out the following, showing which cow you would place first, second, etc., and com- 
pare with the score as given above. If milk records are available also, compare with these. 





First 


Second 


Third 


Fourth 


Placing .... 










Score 











78 DAIRY FARMING 



LABORATORY EXERCISES 

3. The Parts of a Cow. Go to a dairy barn or otherwise arrange 
to have a cow to study. Without the textbook let each student 
point out each of the parts of a dairy cow as shown in Fig. 18. 

4. Make out a Pedigree. If herdbooks of any breed are avail- 
able, or if they can be borrowed from a breeder in the region, make a 
pedigree. If advanced registry books are available, fill in the A. R. O. 
data. If different students take different animals, the pedigrees 
may be compared to see which animal shows the best breeding. If 
any farmer in the region has advanced registry animals, pedigrees 
of these may be worked out, and the same animals may be used for 
judging, so that comparisons may be made on the basis of both 
breeding and individuality. 

5. Judging Dairy Cattle. Go to a dairy barn or otherwise arrange 
to have cows to study. Using a score card like the one on page 77, 
make comparisons of two or more animals. 

Give the reasons for ranking the animals in the order given. 
Begin the reasons with the most important difference between the 
animals compared and give all the leading differences. Make the 
answers terse and concise. 

6. Weighing Milk. If any farmer in the region desires to cooper- 
ate with the school, take the class to his farm and get the method of 
weighing started as directed on page 58. Test the milk, and com- 
plete the records monthly. Feed records may also be taken by a 
member of the class weekly or monthly. A still better exercise for 
students who are living on farms is to have them keep the milk rec- 
ords. 

COLLATERAL READING 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. Ill, pp. 
26-43, 51, 303-306, 308. 

The Dairy Herd, Its Foundation and Management, U. S. Dept. 
Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 55. 

Dah-y Cattle and Milk Production, C. H. Eekles, pp. 17-26 ; 116- 
174. 



CHAPTER 4 
MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 

C. H. ECKLES 

58. Decline of Milk Production in Summer. Milk pro- 
duction of the average herd falls off rapidly in the latter 
part of the summer. It is not uncommon for the amount 
of milk sold by a farmer in August to be no more than half 
that marketed during June. At the season when this rapid 
decline of milk occurs the animals are greatly annoyed by 
flies. The flies are often looked upon as the main cause of 
this decline. There are good reasons for believing that the 
effect of the fly is overestimated. Where soiling or grain 
feeding is practiced, the decline at this season is little more 
than the normal one for the stage of lactation represented 
by the cows. The main cause for the decreased production 
at this time of the year is undoubtedly the failure of the 
cows to eat a sufficient amount of feed. This lack of feed 
may come from poor pasture due to dry weather, or it may 
result from the fact that the cows do not graze sufficiently 
because of the hot weather and the annoyance of flies. The 
cow is sensitive to excessive heat, and this is probably in most 
cases a stronger factor than the flies. The main precaution 
to be observed is to make certain that the animals have 
plenty of feed easily accessible. 

59. Protection from Flies. Cattle in this country are 
troubled most by two kinds of flies, known as the stable 
fly and the horn fly. The stable fly resembles the house fly 

79 



80 DAIRY FARMING 

except that its mouth parts enable it to bite while the house 
fly cannot. The horn fly is a native of Europe and was 
introduced into this country about 1886. It is recognized 
from its habit of feeding with wings spread, and it usually 
travels in swarms. It is also seen at times gathered around 
the base of the horn. 

Many of the flies that annoy cattle are hatched in manure. 
The first precaution to be observed, in any attempt to re- 
duce the number, is to avoid an accumulation of manure where 
it will remain moist, especially near the barn. Horse manure 
is preferred by these pests, but they breed in any, even that 
dropped in the fields by the animals. No practical method 
has been devised that will do more than reduce the number 
of flies very slightly. Large fly traps in the barn have been 
used with some success. Screens on the barn are generally 
found worse than useless since the flies accompany the 
animals into the barn and then remain in the barn if the win- 
dows are screened. 

Milk rooms should always be protected by screens, on 
account of the serious danger of flies carrying germs of 
human diseases into the milk. 

In recent years a great many preparations designed to 
repel flies have been placed on the market. These fly re- 
pellents consist chiefly of some coal tar products with the 
addition of fish oil, resin, or pine tar. Results at three 
experiment stations go to show that there is little value in 
using these preparations. If they are applied daily, it is pos- 
sible to keep the flies away fairly well, but it is questionable 
whether the animal does not suffer more from having the 
pores of its skin closed up with the oily substance than it 
does from the insect. There is no appreciable increase in the 
milk flow when these substances are used. 



MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 81 

60. Dehorning. There are many reasons for dehorning 
the animals in the ordinary business herd. Horns are 
responsible for frequent injuries and serve no useful pur- 
pose. Dehorned cattle may be housed in much smaller 
space and are fed and watered together with much more 
convenience. As a matter of safety it is well to dehorn 
bulls. There is no reason for believing that any bad effects 
follow. It is not advisable to dehorn animals that are to 
be used for exhibition purposes. While animals without 
horns are occasionally found in the show ring, they are at 
a disadvantage. 

Calves may be dehorned successfully by using caustic 
potash (potassium hydrate) when they are a few days old. 
The hair is clipped away from the small buttons which later 
develop into horns. The caustic potash is moistened and 
rubbed on the spot until the skin bleeds shghtly, or is just 
ready to bleed. Care should be taken not to use too much. 
If sufficient potash has been applied, a dent will be left in 
the skull after a few days and no horns will ever develop. 
Persons who have had considerable experience sometimes 
use this method on calves that are nearly a month old, but 
it is best done during the first week, after that more skill 
is required. A few cases have been reported where so much 
water was used that it ran down into the eyes and put them 
out. One man used so much potash that holes were eaten 
through the skull and the calves killed. Such accidents are 
inexcusable. In using potassium hydrate wrap paper around 
the end of the stick to prevent injuring the fingers. 

After an animal is at least one year of age, it may be de- 
horned by using the saw or special dehorning clippers. De- 
horning with the saw or cHppers should be done in cool 
weather in the spring or autumn. 



82 DAIRY FARMING 

61. Marking Calves. In raising pure-bred cattle it is 
important that some system of marking be adopted which 
will make it possible to identify the individuals. This is 
more important with dairy cattle than with beef breeds, 
since the calves are taken away from the mothers soon after 
birth. A number of systems of markings are in use. One 
plan is to insert tags in the ears. There are many forms of 
these. They are numbered, and if desired the name of the 
owner is included. The general objection to this system is 
the possibility that the tags may be torn out. Another plan 
is to place a numbered brass tag on a strap about the neck. 
This is removed when the animal is larger and well known 
to the owner. 

The tattoo system is also used with success. This con- 
sists in printing letters or numbers in the skin of the ear with 
India ink. The instruments are so made that a combina- 
tion of letters or figures may be used. These tattoo marks 
when properly applied are permanent and do not disfigure 
the animal. They cannot be seen at a distance, but make 
it possible to positively identify the animal. This system is 
the most satisfactory with breeds having light- colored skin. 

The system followed by the writer is to place a strap bear- 
ing a number on a brass tag around the neck of the calf before 
it is taken from its mother. This strap is left on until the 
animal is nearly mature. The tattoo mark is then put on 
the ear. 

The color markings of Holsteins, as shown on the diagram 
of the application for registry or on the pedigree, enable one 
to identify these animals. But ear tags or other marking 
systems are also desirable when large numbers are kept. 

62. Shelter. The housing of the dairy cow naturally 
depends upon climatic conditions. She should not be ex- 



MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 



83 



posed to severe cold weather. Cold rains and snowstorms 
are especially to be avoided. The most favorable temper- 
ature has not yet been experimentally determined, but ob- 
servation teaches that a barn temperature around 40 or 50° 
F. is as favorable as any. In cold climates the cow should 
remain in the barn during the cold season except for a few 
hours during the middle of the day while the weather is 
mild. On stormy days or during extreme cold she had better 
be kept inside constantly. Many barns in such regions are 
kept too warm. In warm climates it is not necessary to 
house the animal^ so closely as this. An abundance of fresh 
air is as necessary for the health of the cow as for any 
other animal. This should be supplied by proper venti- 
lation and not through the walls 
of an improperly constructed 
barn, or by leaving the cow out- 
doors exposed to severe weather. 
Excessively warm weather is far 
more injurious to the cow than 
moderately cold. There is no 
practical means of making the 
animal comfortable when it is 
too hot. For this reason hot 
weather and warm climates are 
not favorable for high milk pro- 
duction, especially if accompanied 
by a high humidity. 

63. Milking the Heifer. If the 
young cow is properly managed 
before she has her first calf, there is httle difficulty in 
teaching her to be milked. Calves should be accustomed 
to being tied when small, and if this is done there will be no 




Fig. 27. — Teaching a calf to 
lead : good training for both 
parties. 



84 DAIRY FARMING 

trouble from tying at any later time. Before freshening, 
the heifer should be tied for a month or more in the stall 
where she is to stand when in milk. A careful man should 
handle her and take care not to excite her. It is especially 
necessary to use patience and care when she is first milked. 
64. Methods of Milking. There is a great difference in 
the efficiency of milkers. One man may get 20 per cent more 
milk than another from the same cow. A careless milker 
may dry up a cow within a few months while a good milker 
may keep up the milk flow for the entire year. Men who 
care for cows should always move among them quietly and 
not startle them by sudden movements or loud talking. 
The cow cannot control the secretion of milk by her will 
but it may be affected by excitement. Anything unusual, 
such as the presence of a dog or a stranger at milking time, 
will cause some cows to give less milk. Changing milkers is 
likely to result in a loss of milk for a few milkings, but if 
the new milker be equally proficient the cow will soon return 
to the usual amount. However, the milkers should be 
changed as little as possible. The milking should be done 
quickly and quietly. If the cow is accustomed to eating 
grain while being milked, she will not do well without having 
it every time. She can easily become accustomed to being 
milked either before or after eating, but always should be 
treated in the same manner. Care should be taken to get 
all the strippings, since while the first milk drawn may con- 
tain as low as 1 per cent of fat, the last contains from 6 to 9 
per cent. The teats should always be dry when milked. 
Wetting the teats is all too common but it is a filthy practice. 
A small amount of vaseline rubbed on the hands serves 
the same purpose as wetting the teats and is not at all 
objectionable. 



MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 



85 





\S 



65. Hard-milking Cows. Some cows cause considerable 
annoyance because they milk unusually hard. This condi- 
tion, which is caused by a strong muscle (sphincter muscle) 
that closes the opening of the teat, can be remedied by 
proper treatment* Instruments 
are made by means of which it is 
possible to overcome the difficulty 
with no danger to the animal. 
In most cases the use of teat 
plugs alone is sufficient. These 
plugs, which are made of rubber 
or lead, are placed in the teat 
duct and allowed to remain there 
until the next milking. This is 
continued until the muscle is some- 
what relaxed and the opening 
remains larger. In severe cases a 
cutting instrument known as the 
teat slitter (bistoury) is used. 
This operation should be per- 
formed by a veterinarian or one 
having experience in the use of 
such instruments. In using teat 



Lead teat plug. 




Teat slitter 
or bistoury. 



Teat expander. 



plugs, milk tubes, or any instru- Fig. 28. — instruments used in 
, 1-1 . i 1 • 1 1 treating hard-milking cows. 

ments which are mserted m the 

duct of the udder, great care must be taken to sterilize the 
instruments thoroughly before using them, for if germs gain 
access they may cause serious trouble. A two per cent 
solution of carbolic acid or a weak solution of creolin is 
suitable for disinfecting instruments. It can also be done 
by boiling them in water just before using. The teats should 
be thoroughly cleaned before inserting any instrument. 



S6 DAIRY FARMING 

66. Effect of Interval between Milkings. If the cow be 
milked twice a day at twelve hour intervals, there is usually 
no marked difference between the night and morning milk. 
If the periods are unequal, the larger amount of milk and the 
poorer quality follow the longer period. Heavy-producing 
cows and all that are being handled to obtain the largest 
record should be milked three times a day. Few cows can 
produce over 60 pounds of milk with two milkings, and when 
75 to 80 pounds per day is reached, the production will sel- 
dom go higher unless the cow is milked four times each 
twenty-four hours. Heavy-producing cows may profitably 
be milked three times a day. With cows of ordinary ca- 
pacity the increased yield is not sufficient to pay for the 
extra labor. A cow that will produce 60 pounds per day with 
two milkings as a rule will increase to at least 70 if milked 
a third time. The richness of the milk of heavy milkers is 
increased somewhat when they are milked more than twice 
per day. If many cows in the herd are giving over 50 
pounds when milked twice a day, it will pay to try milking 
three times. 

67. Milking Machines. A satisfactory milking machine 
has long been one of the greatest needs of the dairy farmer. 
While it can hardly be said that the milking machine is out 
of the experimental stage, still it seems sufficiently well 
developed to be considered a commercial success at the pres- 
ent time. It is thoroughly demonstrated that by its use a 
skilled operator can do as good work as the average milker. 
It is still a question whether the amount of milk obtained dur- 
ing the lactation period by a milking machine is equal to 
that obtained by a good milker. It is quite certain that the 
cow is not injured by the use of the milking machine. 

Provided the machine is properly cleaned and used, the 



MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 87 

sanitary condition of the milk is better than under ordinary 
conditions, but with careless handling of the machine the 
milk may be in worse sanitary condition than that produced 
by hand milking. So far the milking machine seems adapted 
only to herds of 39 cows or more. One milker with a suitable 
outfit can milk from 25 to 30 cows per hour. The indica- 
tions are that the use of the milking machine will be widely 
extended in the near future. As a result many more large 
dairy herds will be kept. The labor problem is at present 
the main factor in the way of maintaining large herds. The 
proper management of a machine requires considerable 
mechanical ability. 

68. Cows with Leaky Teats. Some cows lose a portion 
of the milk by leakage from the teats before milking. No 
practical remedy has been devised. If conditions warrant 
the trouble, the cow may be milked three times a day or the 
teat opening may be closed after the milking by applying 
collodion. 

69. Bloody Milk. Bloody milk is much more common 
than is generally supposed. Traces of blood are often found 
in the separator bowl after milk has been separated although 
its presence was not suspected. It is not an indication of 
disease or any unhealthy condition of the cow. It is caused 
by the rupture of a small blood vessel, which allows the 
blood to escape into the milk ducts. Sometimes certain 
cows have this trouble for several months but more often 
it appears only once or twice. It cannot be prevented or 
stopped by any specific treatment. One should see that 
the cow is not being injured in the udder by being stepped 
on by cows in adjoining stalls or by any other cause. As 
a rule the cow recovers in a short time with no special treat- 
ment. 



88 DAIRY FARMING 

70. Chapped Teats. Chapped teats may occur in cold 
weather. The apphcation of vaseUne for a few times at 
the first appearance of the trouble will usually check and 
cure it. For severe cases the teats should be thoroughly 
washed and softened with warm water, after which glycerite 
of tannin may be applied. 

71. Warts on Teats. These are often troublesome but 
usually disappear of themselves. They may be treated by 
applying vaseline or olive oil. If large, they may be cut off 
with a pair of sharp scissors and the spot touched with a 
stick of caustic potash. 

72. Bitter Milk. This trouble is most often found where 
one or two cows are kept to provide a family milk supply. 
The trouble is confined mostly to cows that have been in 
milk seven months or more. It rarely occurs when the ani- 
mal is receiving green feed. The milk has a peculiar taste, 
described by some as salty but more often as bitter. The 
taste is present in the fresh milk but it seems to become more 
noticeable as the milk stands. The cream from milk of this 
kind churns with difficulty and sometimes will not churn 
at all. 

The cause of this trouble and a remedy for it cannot be 
given with certainty. It most frequently occurs when the 
animal is overfed with grain. The only treatment that 
offers promise of removing the trouble is to reduce the grain 
feed to the amount actuall}^ needed by the animal, or pref- 
erably less, for a while and to give two or three doses of 
1 to 1\ pounds of Epsom salts at intervals of from three to 
four days. 

73. Kicking Cows. The habit of kicking is due usually 
to wrong management. Cows kick at first from either 
fear or pain. If not properly handled, they may develop 



MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 89 

the habit. Striking a cow that kicks makes her worse. 
In case the cow's teats are sore, use vaseUne, or in severe 
cases, use a milking tube, until the injury can be healed. If 
the cow is afraid handle her gently. In some cases gentle 
measures will not work. Some old cows that have got 
into the habit cannot be cured. Such animals should be 
tied during milking. This is best done by using a rather 
heavy strap with a buckle and a loop. The strap is put 
around one leg above the hock and the end drawn through 
the loop. The strap is then put around the other leg and 
buckled so the two legs are held close together. The cow 
soon learns to stand quietly as long as the strap is in place. 

74. Self-sucking Cows. This habit is not very common 
but it is difficult to break up when once it is acquired. Oc- 
casionally one cow will suck another one. If an ordinary 
cow contracts the habit, the best plan is to dispose of her. 
A fairly effective treatment seems to be to put a bull ring in 
the cow's nose and hang a second ring from the first. The 
second ring can generally be taken off after a time. 

75. How Long Should a Cow be Dry? Practically all 
experienced dairymen agree that cows should be dry for a 
period before freshening. A cow will produce more milk 
if allowed six weeks to recuperate, than she will if milked 
continuously. Heavy milk production is a severe tax upon 
an animal. A cow that has not been dry for a short time 
will start at a considerably lower level of milk production 
than will one that has had a chance to rest. Under ordinary 
conditions six weeks is sufficient, but if a cow is in a thin 
condition it is better to make the period longer. 

76. Drying up a Cow. The most common method of 
drying a cow is to lengthen the interval between milkings, by 
at first omitting one milking each day. After a few days 



90 DAIRY FARMING 

the milk is drawn only once in two days until the secretion is 
stopped. There is less danger of injuring a cow in drying 
her up than is generally thought. The secretion of milk 
near the end of the lactation period depends largely upon 
the stimulation of the nerves in milking and therefore stops 
readily if this stimulation be removed. If a cow is produc- 
ing as httle as 10 pounds per day, milking can be stopped at 
any time with no possible injury. The udder will fill slightly 
for the first few days, after which the secreted milk is ab- 
sorbed and no injury follows. If this plan is followed, it is 
best not to draw any milk after once stopping. If the ani- 
mal is producing much more than 10 or 12 pounds per day, 
her feed should at first be reduced for a few days and the 
character of the ration changed to one low in protein, such 
as timothy hay, with little or no grain. As soon as the pro- 
duction of milk begins to drop decidedly it is safe to stop 
abruptly. The author has followed this plan for a number 
of years with high-producing cows without the slightest injury 
in any case. 

77. Milking the Cow before Calving. It is the practice 
of some to milk the heavy milkers several times before the 
birth of the calf, thinking the udder may be injured. As a 
rule this is not a good practice. It increases the danger of 
trouble at the time of freshening and does not reUeve the 
congested condition of the udder to any great extent. It is 
only advisable with the heaviest milkers when they are 
suffering greatly from the distention of the udder. 

78. Care of Cow after Calving. The vitality of the cow 
is low after calving and she should be treated carefully. 
She should be protected from cold winds and severe weather. 
Her drinking water is best warmed for a day or two if the 
weather is cold. The ration for the first few days should be 



MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 91 

light and not very abundant. A bran mash, made by moisten- 
ing bran with warm water, is well adapted as a grain ration 
for the first day. If the udder is swollen and congested, 
the grain ration should be increased very slowly until this 
condition disappears. As a rule at least two weeks are re- 
quired to get the cow on a full ration. No alarm need be 
felt if the udder remains hard and somewhat congested for a 
few days provided milk can be drawn from each quarter. 

The cow should be watched closely for the first 48 hours 
for symptoms of milk fever. This is most likely to occur 
with the heaviest producers and never with heifers at their 
first freshening. Every manager of high-producing cows 
should become familiar with the symptoms of milk fever 
and have the apparatus on hand to treat it promptly. 

79. Management of Young Stock. The cheapest way to 
raise young stock and the way that produces the most vig- 
orous animals, is to allow them to run loose in open sheds 
and tie them up only while they eat their grain feed. Some 
farmers also follow this system with milking cows with good 
results. The system is best adapted to regions that have an 
abundance of straw as large amounts of bedding are required. 

80. Care and Management of the Bull. The bull calf 
should be fed in the same manner as a heifer of the same age. 
He should always be well fed during the entire period of 
growth as an undersized animal is not desirable. As a winter 
ration clover, alfalfa, or other legume hay is best adapted to 
his needs, while for grain a mixture of corn with oats, bran, 
or oilmeal is excellent. The same ration that is fed to cows in 
milk may be used. There is no advantage in having the 
young bull fat, but he should be kept at least in moderate 
flesh. When the roughage is of good quality the mature bull 
requires little or. no grain to keep him in moderate flesh. 



92 DAIRY FARMING 

The bull should not be allowed to run loose with the herd. 
He should be kept in a paddock where plenty of exercise is 
possible. A ring should be put in his nose at the age of about 
one year. A bull should be handled carefully and firmly at 
all times. Teasing should never be allowed. He does not 
appreciate petting or unnecessary handling, and is best let 
alone except when it is necessary to handle him. He should 
be handled in a firm manner and made to respect his keeper 
but should never be abused. The bull of a dairy breed is 
more likely to be vicious than one of a beef breed since the 
former are much more active and nervous. It should 
always be taken for granted that the bull is dangerous and 
that he cannot safely be trusted. The animal should be 
thoroughly trained for tying and leading when a calf. He 
may then be tied or led at any time later even if handled only 
at long intervals. 

The main mistake made in handhng aged bulls is in hous- 
ing them too closely without exercise. Plenty of exercise is 
the most important factor in preserving the vitality of a 
breeding animal. For any but the most severe climates the 
best housing for the bull during all seasons of the year is a 
shed protected from the cold winds but open on one side. 
Some exposure to the weather especially during the cooler 
part of the year helps to keep him in good physical condi- 
tion. Where it is necessary that the bull be kept in show 
condition all the time, as for example in high-class breeding 
establishments where buyers are present frequently, the 
bull is generally kept in a box stall where he may be groomed 
and where he is protected from the weather. Under these 
conditions some provision must be made to exercise him 
regularly or he is likely to become infertile. The ties, fences, 
and gates should always be strong and kept in good repair 



MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 93 

SO that the ianimal may not have a chance to learn his enor- 
mous strength. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. At what time of the year do most cows in your region freshen ? 
From this fact and from Fig. 25, about how much less milk should 
be given in August than in June? From the creamery or other 
buyer of milk find the total amount of milk received in April, May, 
June, July, and August. How does this compare with the natural 
drop ? 

2. What proportion of the cattle in your region are dehorned? 
How is dehorning done ? 

3. What systems of marking cattle are used in your region? 

4. Why do dairy cattle require warmer barns than beef cattle ? 

5. Are any advanced registry records made by breeders in this 
region? How many times a day do they milk? 

6. How long are most of the cows dry in the best dairy herds of 
your region? 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

7. Removing the Horns from a Calf. Following the direction 
on page 81 remove the horns from a calf less than three weeks old. 

8. Milking Contest. A milking contest may be held. Farmers 
should act as judges. Some of the points to consider should be : 
The effect of the manner of handling the cow on her composure ; 
how clean the milk is kept ; how completely the milk is removed 
from the udder ; and how fast the work is done. 

COLLATERAL READING 

Stable Fly, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 540. 
Dehorning Cattle, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 350. 



CHAPTER 5 

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 

c. h. eckles 

Composition of Feeds and Feeding Standards 

81. The Uses of Feed. A dairy cow uses feed for the 
following purposes : 

1. For maintaining the body. 

2. To supply the material for milk. 

3. For development of the fetus. 

4. For growth in case the animal is immature. 

5. To produce gain in weight. 

Three general classes of food material are required. 

1. Protein or nitrogenous material. 

2. Carbohydrates and fat. 

3. Ash or mineral matter. 

The main problem of feeding is to supply the proper 
amount of the food material of the three classes in the least 
expensive form. It is evident that the first step is to know 
what the animal requires for food and how to prepare a 
ration that will meet this demand. 

82. Chemical Analysis of Feeds. When a chemist makes 
an analysis of any foodstuff, clover hay for example, he 
determines the amounts of water, protein, ash, crude fiber, 
nitrogen-free extract, and fat that the substance contains. 
All feedstuffs contain these same constituents, but in widely 
varying quantities. 

94 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 95 

83. Water. All feeds, even those apparently dry, like 
corn or hay, contain a portion of water varying from 10 to 
15 per cent. Roots, such as beets and turnips, contain about 
90 per cent of water. The water in the feed eaten serves 
the same purpose as ordinary water consumed by the animals. 

84. Ash. This is the mineral part of the plant substance 
remaining after the material is burned. It makes up the 
greater part of the bone, and is a necessary part of milk and 
of lean meat. The ash elements that are most likely to 
be deficient are common salt, phosphorus, and calcium. 

85. Protein. All protein compounds contain nitrogen. 
They serve the purpose of building up tissue in the body, 
such as muscle and skin, and constitute the curd of milk. 
Lean meat and the white of an egg are familiar examples 
of nearly pure protein. All feeds contain more or less pro- 
tein. Among hays, clover, alfalfa, cowpea, and soybean 
contain the largest amounts. Among the common concen- 
trates linseed meal, cottonseed meal, and wheat bran con- 
tain relatively large quantities. A certain amount of protein 
is indispensable in a ration, as nothing else can be substituted 
for it by the animal. 

86. Crude Fiber. This is the woody part of the plant, 
which is the least digestible. The amount of this constitu- 
ent increases with the age of the plant, and is large in feeds 
like hays and corn stover, and small in concentrates like 
corn and linseed meal. 

87. Nitrogen-free Extract. This term includes the sugars, 
starches', and other carbohydrates that are much like crude 
fiber in composition, but are much more digestible. 

88. Fat or Ether Extract. That part of the foodstuff 
that will dissolve in ether is called ether extract. It con- 
sists mostly of fats, and is usually so called although it 



96 DAIRY FARMING 

includes sufficient other products to make it somewhat 
inaccurate to call it fat. 

The crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and fat all serve 
much the same purposes in the body. They supply heat to 
keep the body warm, and material to be built into fat and to 
be burned or oxidized in the body to furnish energy. 

89. Digestibility. An animal is not able to digest all 
of the substances in any foodstuff. The proportion -of the 
protein, for example, that may be used depends largely upon 
the nature of the feed. The grains are more thoroughly 
digested than the hays. The amounts of each of the sub- 
stances that can be digested from any feed are determined 
by what are called digestion trials. The chemist makes 
such a trial by analyzing the food consumed during a certain 
period, and at the same time collecting all the dung excreted 
and analyzing that to find out how much passes through 
the alimentary canal. The difference between the amount 
consumed and the amount voided is called digestible. Such 
tests have been made of all common feeding stuffs, so the 
practical feeder has data at hand regarding both the com- 
position of feeds and their digestibility to serve as a, guide 
in preparing suitable rations. 

90. Production Values. The values' of different feeds are 
not always in proportion to the digestible nutrients. If a 
food is hard to digest, some of the energy derived from it is 
required to make up the loss due to the hard work of diges- 
tion. Corn and other grains are easily digested, and for this 
reason, energy from grains is worth more to the animal than 
is the same amount of energy from timothy hay or other 
coarse feeds. Timothy hay if burned gives off as much heat 
or energy as does corn meal, but, in one experiment, Armsby 
found the animal digested only 44 per cent of the timothy, while 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 



97 



77 per cent of the corn meal~was ^igestib^e."OI^ account "of 
the energy required for digestion still less was available for 
use in storing up fat, or for producing milk. On the basis 
of digestibility 168 pounds of timothy was equal to 100 
pounds of corn, but for production purposes, that is, for 
storing fat, producing milk, or making growth, 269 pounds 
of timothy was necessary to equal 100 pounds of corn. Table 
14 gives a comparison of the amounts of energy available 
from corn and from timothy hay. 

Table 14. — Energy Values per 100 Pounds of Corn Meal 
AND Timothy Hay, each Containing Fifteen Per Cent 
Water 



Corn Meal 



Timothy Hat 



Heat value when burned . 
Heat value of material digested 
Production value 



Therms 

171 

131 

70 



Therms 

176 

78 
26 



It is not safe to compare roughage with grain on the basis 
of digestible nutrients, but such a comparison between dif- 
ferent classes of hay is fairly reliable, and grains may be 
compared with grains on the basis of digestible nutrients. 
The best way thus far found for comparing different feeds is 
on the basis of the energy values for production. The 
feeding standards given on pages 298 to 304 are based on 
digestible material. Armsby's standards given in this 
chapter are based on production values. 

91. Feeding Standards. The many analyses that have 
been made enable us to know how much of each of the sev- 
eral constituents is contained in all common feeds on the 
average. It is also known that the cow needs all of these 



H 



98 



DAIRY FARMING 




FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 



99 



constituents. The next question is, how much of each 
constituent is needed to supply what the cow must have to 
enable her to produce a good flow of milk. This problem 
has been worked on for many years by able investigators, 
and a fairly accurate knowledge of the subject has resulted. 
A statement of the food requirements of the animal is known 
as a feeding standard. 

The first feeding standard to come into use in a practical 
way was one prepared by Wolff, an eminent German in- 
vestigator. A later revision by Lehmann, known as the 
Wolff -Lehmann standard, has been widely used. A standard 
prepared in this country by Hsecker has also met with much 
favor. The most recent feeding standard to come into use 
was prepared by Dr. Armsby of the Pennsylvania Exper- 
iment Station and is based upon his own extensive investi- 
gations and those of Kellner in Germany. He bases this 
standard upon the amount of digestible protein, and the 
production value, or energy value, of the feed. He uses the 
term *' therm " to represent the energy or heat value re- 
quired to raise 1000 kilograms of water one degree centi- 
grade (1000 calories). 

He first estimates the protein and energy required for 
maintaining the animal, and to this adds the amount of each 
necessary to supply what is needed for the milk. The 
maintenance requirements for cattle are given as follows : 



Live Weight 


Digestible Protein Re- 
quired 


Energy Value Required 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Therms 


500 


.30 


3.80 


750 


.40 


4.95 


1000 


.50 


6.00 


1250 


.60 


7.00 


1500 


.65 


7.90 



100 



DAIRY FARMING 



The maintenance requirement naturally increases with 
the size of the animal, but not in direct proportion. 

As "a result of his investigations, Armsby suggested .p5 
pounds of digestible protein and .3 therms energy value for 
each pound of milk. This was based upon average milk 
containing 4 per cent of fat. The author ^ has recently pro- 
posed the following modification of Armsby's standard to 
adapt it to the feeding of cows not producing average milk : 



Per Cent Fat 


Digestible Protein 


Energy Required per 


Required per Pound Milk 


Pound Milk 




Pounds 


Therms 


3.00 


.050 


.26 


3.50 


.052 


.28 


4.00 


.055 


.30 


4.50 


.058 


.33 


5.00 


.062 


.36 


5.50 


.066 


.40 


6.00 


.070 


.45 


6.50 


.075 


.50 



Where it is not practicable to take the richness of the milk 
of each cow into account the following may be used and the 
requirement based upon breed average : 



Breed 


Digestible Protein per 
Pound Milk 


Energy per Pound Milk 


Holstein .... 

Shorthorn 1 
Ayrshire \ . . 
Brown Swiss J 
Jersey \ . . . 
Guernsey / 


Pounds 

.05 

.055 

.066 


Therms 

.26-.28 
.28-.30 
.40-.45 



92. Calculating a Ration. Let it be assumed that the 
cow to be fed weighs 1150 pounds and produces daily 30 

1 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Research Bulletin 7. 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 101 

pounds of milk testing 4.5 per cent fat. According to the 
preceding table the maintenance requirement would be as 
follows : 

Digestible protein 56 pounds 

Energy . 6.60 therms 



For the production of 30 pounds of 4.50 per cent milk 
there would be needed : 

Digestible protein (30 X .058) 1.74 pounds 

Energy (30 X .33 ) 9.90 therms 

The total requirements then are as follows : 





Digestible 
Protein 


Energy Value 


For maintenance .... 
For milk production . . . 


.56 
1.74 


6.60 
9.90 


Total 


2.30 pounds 


16.50 therms 



The problem is to find a ration that contains this amount 
of digestible protein and has this energy value. Other 
problems also enter into the question, such as bulk* and the 
comparative cost of the several feeds available. In cal- 
culating a ration we always begin with the roughage, since 
on most farms considerable roughage is on hand that should 
be used to the best advantage, and, as already pointed out, 
the cow is adapted for consuming coarse feeds and must 
have a certain bulk in her ration at all times. We will as- 
sume that on the farm where the foregoing ration is to be 
fed, corn silage, clover hay, and corn are on hand, and wheat 
bran and cottonseed meal may be purchased if necessary 
to provide the proper ration. 



102 



DAIRY FARMING 



Table 15. — Dry Matter, Digestible Protein, and Energy 
Values per 100 Pounds^ 



Feeding Stuff 



Green fodder and silage : 

Alfalfa 

Clover — crimson . . 

Clover — red .... 

Corn fodder — green 

Corn silage ^ . . . . 

Hungarian grass . . . 

Rape 

Rye 

Timothy 

Hay and dry coarse fodders : 

Alfalfa hay 

Clover hay — - red 

Corn forage — field cured 

Corn stover .... 

Cowpea hay .... 

Hungarian hay . . . 

Oat hay 

Soybean hay .... 

Timothy hay .... 
Straws : 

Oat straw 

Rye straw 

Wheat straw .... 
Roots and tubers : 

Carrots 

Mangels 

Potatoes 

Rutabagas 

Turnips 

Grains : 

Barley 

Corn 

Corn-and-cob meal . . 

Oats 

Pea meal 



Total Dry 
Matter 



Pounds 

28.2 
19.1 
29.2 
20.7 
25.6 
28.9 
14.3 
23.4 
38.4 

91.6 

84.7 
57.8 
59.5 
89.3 
92.3 
84.0 
88.7 
86.8 

90.8 
92.9 
90.4 

11.4 

9.1 
21.1 
11.4 

9.4 

89.1 
89.1 
84.9 
89.0 
89.5 



Digestible 
Protein 



Poujids 

2.50 
2.19 
2.21 
.41 
.88 
1.33 
2.16 
1.44 
1.04 

6.93 
5.41 
2.13 
1.80 
8.57 
3.00 
2.59 
7.68 
2.05 

1.09 
.63 
.37 

.37 
.14 
.45 
.88 
.22 

8.37 
6.79 
4.53 
8.36 
16.77 



Energy 
Value 



Therms 

12.45 
11.30 
16.17 
12.44 
16.56 
14.76 
11.43 
11.63 
19.08 

34.41 
34.74 
30.53 
26.53 
42.76 
44.03 
36.97 
38.65 
33.56 

21.21 
20.87 
16.56 

7.82 
4.62 
18.05 
8.00 
5.74 

80.75 

88.84 
72.05 
66.27 
71.75 



1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 346. 

2 Owing to an error, the original publication gave the protein of corn 
silage as 1.21, but .88 is correct. 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 



103 



Table 15. — Dry Matter, Digestible Protein, and Energy 
Values per 100 Pounds {Continued) 



Feeding Stuff 



Grains {Continued) '. 

Rye 

Wheat 

By-products : 

Brewers' grain — dried 
Brewers' grain — wet 
Buckwheat middlings 
Cottonseed meal . . 
Distillers' grains — dried 
Principally corn 
Principally rye . . 
Gluten feed — dry 
Gluten meal — Buffalo 
Gluten meal — Chicago 
Linseed meal — old process 
Linseed meal — new process 
Malt sprouts .... 

Rye bran 

Sugar beet pulp — fresh 
Sugar beet pulp — dried 
Wheat bran .... 
Wheat middlings . . . 



Total Dry 
Matter 



Pounds 

88.4 
89.5 

92.0 
24.3 

88.2 
91.8 

93.0 
93.2 
91.9 
91.8 
90.5 
90.8 
90.1 
89.8 
88.2 
10.1 
93.6 
88.1 
84.0 



Digestible 
Protein 



Pounds 

8.12 
8.90 

19.04 

3.81 

23.34 

35.15 

21.93 
10.38 
19.95 
21.56 
33.09 
27.54 
29.26 
12.36 
11.35 
.63 
6.80 
10.21 
12.79 



Energy 
Values 



Therms 

81.72 
82.63 

60.01 
14.82 
75.92 
84.20 

79.23 
60.93 
79.32 

88.80 
78.49 
78.92 
74.67 
46.33 
56.65 
7.77 
60.10 
48.23 
77.65 



A good ration of roughage would be corn silage 35 pounds 
and clover hay 10 pounds. 

Using the data given in Table 15, the following calcula- 
tions are made : 





Digestible Protein 


Energy Value 


35 lb. silage .... 
10 lb. clover hay . . 


Pounds 

(.35 X .88) .31 
(.10 X 5.41) .54 


Therms 

(.35 X 16.56) 5.80 
(.10 X 34.74) 3.47 


Total 


.85 


9.27 



104 



DAIRY FARMING 



This leaves 1.45 pounds of protein and 7.23 therms of 
energy to be supphed by the grain. If corn is grown on the 
farm, we will use it as far as possible in making up the grain 
ration. The amounts to be used can only be found by trial. 
We will start with the following : corn 6 pounds, bran 3 
pounds, cottonseed meal 1.5 pounds. 



35 pounds corn silage . 
10 pounds clover hay . 

6 pounds corn .... 

3 pounds bran .... 
1.5 pounds cottonseed meal 

Total in ration . . . 
Required .... 



Digestible 


Energy 


Protein 


Value 


Pounds 


Therms 


.31 


5.80 


.54 


3.47 


.41 


5.33 


.31 


1.45 


.53 


1.26 


2.10 


17.31 


2.30 


16.50 



This ration gives more energy than is necessary and is 
deficient in protein. Since cottonseed meal is the highest 
in protein we will omit 1 pound of corn and increase the 
cottonseed meal to 2 pounds. We then have : 



Digestible 
Protein 



Energy 



35 pounds corn silage 
10 pounds clover hay 
5- pounds corn . 
3 pounds bran . 
2 cottonseed meal . 
Total in ration . 
Required . . 



Pounds 

.31 
.54 
.34 
.31 
.70 



2.20 
2.30 



Therms 

5.80 
3.47 
4.44 
1.45 
1.68 



16.84 
16.50 



This ration approaches the standard closely enough for 
practical purposes. It is not essential to have an exact 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 105 

agreement with the standard, since the composition of the 
feed varies to some extent and the individual requirements 
of the animals are also subject to some variations. 

93. The Cost of the Ration. In the foregoing, no atten- 
tion has been given to the relative cost of the feeds used in 
making up the ration. This question is one of great impor- 
tance, and must always be taken into account. In pre- 
paring the ration the cost should be calculated at the same 
time, and trial made of various combinations that offer to 
reduce the cost. 

A careful study of the figures in Table 15 will be of great 
assistance in the selection of the most economical ration. If 
the ration at hand is short in protein, and the purchase of 
some concentrate to supply this deficiency is contemplated, 
a study should be made of the amount of digestible protein 
in various feedstuffs, together with the price. A good plan 
is to calculate the cost per pound of digestible protein to 
ascertain in what feed it can be purchased most economically. 
For example, if cottonseed meal costs $32 per ton, one pound 
of digestible protein would cost 4.6 cents, if the value out- 
side the protein be ignored. With bran at $20 per ton a 
pound of digestible protein would cost 9 '8 cents, and with 
oats at 50 cents per bushel, or $31.25 per ton, it would be 
worth 18.7 cents. Under these conditions it is readily seen 
which feedstuff would be the cheapest source of protein for 
the ration deficient in that constituent. 

If the question is that of providing the cheapest ration 
as a whole and not merely supplying a lack of protein, it is 
equally important to study the energy value of the several 
feeds as carefully as is done with the protein. It is readily 
seen, for example, that while bran has an energy value of 48.23 
therms per 100 pounds, corn has a value of 88.84. If corn 



106 DAIRY FARMING 

and bran are the same price per pound, corn is by far the 
cheaper feed. With bran at $20 per ton, a therm of energy 
costs 2.07 cents, while in corn at $26 per ton the same energy 
costs only 1.46 cents. When planning the ration to be pur- 
chased, or even the crop to be grown in some cases, it is well 
to make such calculations as suggested and determine which 
are the cheapest feedstuffs under the existing conditions. 

Discussion of Common Feedstuffs 

No particular feed or combination of feeds is essential for 
the most economical production of milk. The first consider- 
ation is to grow the most suitable crops on the farm in order 
that the amount purchased may be as small as possible 
without reducing the efficiency of the ration. In the brief 
discussion which follows, only the most common feedstuffs 
are considered. 

94. Timothy Hay. The value of this hay as a feed for 
dairy cows is often greatly overestimated. It is unpalatable 
except when cut early and therefore will not be consumed 
in sufficient quantities. The most serious objection is the 
low protein content. 

95. Corn Stover. This is the name applied to dried corn 
stalks from which the ears have been removed. It may be 
utilized to a small extent. It has the same characteristics 
and objections as timothy hay, and cannot be depended upon 
for more than a part of the roughage. 

96. Hay from Legumes. Hay of this class is especially 
valuable for the dairy cow. It includes the common clovers, 
alfalfa, the cowpea, soybean, field pea, and other less com- 
mon legumes, such as vetch and crimson clover. Forage 
from this class of plants when properly cured is highly 
palatable, and contains a relatively large amount of protein. 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 107 

For this reason a legume hay should by all means be grown 
by the dairy farmer. The ash content is also large, which 
is of importance, especially when fed with corn products 
that are low in ash. 

97. Silage. It is very important that a succulent food 
be supplied to the cow at all times. In feeding corn silage 
it should be kept in mind that this of itself is not a complete 
ration for the cow in milk, since it is relatively high in car- 
bohydrates and low in protein. It is usually not advisable 
to feed over about 35 pounds to a small cow and 40 to 45 to 
a large one. It is not advisable to feed it as the only 
roughage. Some hay should be given. For this purpose 
the legumes are best adapted, on account of their high 
protein and ash content. 

98. Corn. Over the greater part of America, corn is the 
cheapest grain. In the corn belt this valuable grain is often 
fed to excess. On the other hand, some dairymen do not 
feed any of it, on account of the erroneous idea that it is not 
suited for milk production. Corn may be fed in reasonable 
quantities to any class of animals on the farm. It is es- 
pecially palatable for the cow in milk. However, it should 
not be the only grain feed. Corn is low in protein and 
ash content. If combined with corn stover, corn silage or 
timothy hay for roughage, the protein content is entirely 
too low for a dairy ration. Corn silage and ground corn 
combined with clover or alfalfa hay and bran, however, 
makes a good ration for general feeding. 

99. Wheat Bran. Next to corn, wheat bran is the most 
important cow feed of this country. Its great value as a 
food for growing animals and cows in milk comes from the 
high ash and protein content. Its hght, loose character 
also makes it a valuable addition to a heavy ration in the way 



108 DAIRY FARMING 

of lightening up the mass so that it is easier for the digestive 
juices to act upon it. This is of special importance in con- 
nection with such feeds as cottonseed meal, that have a ten- 
dency to form a pasty mass in the stomach. 

Wheat middlings, or shorts, is a valuable feed for the cow, 
but it is more like corn meal in composition and prop- 
erties than like bran. As a rule it is better to make use of 
bran rather than shorts for the cow in milk. 

100. Oats and Oat Products. Oats is an excellent feed 
for cows and growing animals when the cost is not pro- 
hibitive. Woll found oats to be about 10 per cent more 
valuable per pound than bran as feed for cows. In general, 
it may be said that oats are themselves an excellent feed. 
But if the balance of the ration is deficient in protein, oats 
do not contain enough protein to make up the shortage. 
The valuable by-products of oats are mainly from oatmeal 
mills, and consist of oat shorts and finely divided parts of 
the grain. Besides these, a mUch larger quantity of hulls 
must be disposed of by these mills. Hulls are mostly crude 
fiber and are about like oat straw in feeding value. The 
by-products of the oatmeal mills are therefore valuable, to 
the extent that they contain the parts of the grains. Oat 
hulls are used largely to form a portion of various mixed feeds. 

101. Cottonseed Meal. This by-product is left after 
the oil is extracted from cottonseed. It contains a higher 
amount of protein than any other common feed. For this 
reason it is especially valuable for balancing rations deficient 
in protein, for instance those in which corn and corn products 
form a large proportion. It should not be fed to excess. 
As a rule from two to four pounds per day is the maximum. 
However, in the South, where it is abundant, it is fed in 
much larger quantities with good results. 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 109 

102. Linseed Meal. This valuable feed is the residue 
after linseed oil is extracted from flaxseed. It ranks next 
to cottonseed meal in protein, and on the market usually 
sells for a little more. It seems to exert a very favorable 
effect upon animals of all kinds. Like cottonseed meal, it 
is especially valuable as a means of supplying the protein 
usually lacking in the farm-grown ration. 

103. Gluten Feed. This is a by-product from starch 
and glucose factories. It consists of the corn grain after the 
starch is extracted. In protein content it ranks about 
midway between bran and oil meal, and is a palatable and 
valuable feed. 

104. Beet Pulp and Molasses. Formerly beet pulp was 
fed to cattle in the neighborhood of beet-sugar factories, 
but now much of it is dried. The feeding value of dried beet 
pulp is a little less per pound than corn, which it resembles 
in the relative amount of protein and carbohydrates present. 
It swells greatly when moistened and cannot be pressed into 
a compact mass. For this reason it is easily digested and 
is valuable to lighten up a grain ration that otherwise would 
form a mass in the stomach not easily penetrated by the 
digestive juices. 

Low-grade molasses is another by-product of cane and 
beet-sugar factories. It is often sold in combination with 
other feeds, such as beet pulp and alfalfa hay, and sometimes 
with nearly worthless materials such as peanut hulls, weed 
seeds, cocoa waste, or peat moss. Molasses serves a useful 
purpose in making unpalatable feeds more readily consumed. 
Unfortunately it is too often used to disguise material of 
little or no feeding value. 

105. Brewers' Grains. Fresh brewers' grains are fed in 
large quantities where they may be hauled directly from the 



110 DAIRY FARMING 

brewery. Considerable objection has been raised by city 
health authorities to the use of this feed. If fed in moderate 
amounts under proper sanitary conditions, it is not ob- 
jectionable. However, the use of it is so often abused that 
officials in some locahties have found it easier to prohibit 
the use than to regulate it. The objection comes from 
feeding these grains exclusively, from allowing decomposi- 
tion to begin before feeding, and from the very objection- 
able sanitary conditions that exist if special care is not taken 
to keep the feed boxes, feeding troughs, and, in fact, the 
entire stable, clean. This feed should not be used in excess 
of twenty pounds per day, and should be supplemented with 
hay and some other grain, such as corn. 

The greater part of the brewers' grains now produced are 
dried, and in this form may be transported long distances. 
This feed is rich in protein. Four or five pounds may be 
used in the ration to advantage. At present the larger part 
of this by-product finds a market in Europe. 

106. Mixed Feeds. No small proportion of the grain 
supplied the dairy cows of the United States is in the form of 
mixed feeds. As a class, mixed feed is to be looked upon 
with suspicion. Where the unmixed grains and by-products 
may be bought on the market, it is always safer to purchase 
them and to make such mixtures as may be best to supple- 
ment the available farm feeds. The main purpose of the 
manufacturers or dealers in putting feed mixtures on the 
market is to dispose of material of inferior quality or of some 
by-product of little or no value. One of the most common 
ingredients of mixed feeds is oat hulls, from oatmeal factories. 
In many cases the hulls are ground fine to escape detection, 
and the claim is made that ground oats is a part of the 
mixture. A careful examination will usually disclose the fact 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 111 

that oat hulls have been added. Ground corncobs and corn 
bran are occasionally mixed with wheat bran. A cottonseed 
feed that is a mixture of cottonseed hulls and cottonseed 
meal is found on the market. The only object in making 
such a mixture is to sell cottonseed hulls at a good price. 
Alfalfa hay of doubtful quahty is mixed with sugar refuse, and 
by hberal advertising sold at a price above its real value. 

Nearly all states where large quantities of feed are pur- 
chased by the farmers now have laws regarding the sale of 
feeding stuffs. These laws, however, do not take the place 
of intelligence on the part of feed users. Such a law generally 
requires the proper branding of each sack and labeling to 
indicate the chemical composition. It should be remem- 
bered that the label gives the total amount of protein and other 
constituents, and not the amount of each that is digestible, 
which is decidedly lower. Feed buyers should patronize 
only reliable dealers, and buy feeds that are labeled and 
guaranteed. There are no mixtures better than the buyer 
can make himself, and there is no special feed or mixture 
having any remarkable properties not possessed by familiar 
feeds. The buyer of mill feeds should make a point of keep- 
ing in touch with the experiment station of his state, and if 
the feed control is vested in some other body or official, with 
them as well, and make use of the information they will be 
able to furnish regarding the feeds on the market. 

107. Condimental Stock Foods. Numerous articles vari- 
ously known as '' stock food " and ^' condition powders " 
are common on the market and are fed to a considerable 
extent by farmers who are not well informed regarding the 
feeding of live stock. They are guaranteed to make stock 
grow faster, cows to give more and richer milk, and some 
are recommended as cures for nearly all diseases of domestic 



112 DAIRY FARMING 

animals. The best of these substances generally have for 
their base common feedstuffs, such as linseed meal or wheat 
middlings, while others contain low-grade mill refuse or even 
ground bark or clay. To the base is added various other 
substances, such as common salt, charcoal, sulphate of iron, 
gentian, pepper, and Epsom salts, and often tumeric or iron 
oxide for coloring. Some may have a small value as a tonic, 
but if such treatment is desirable, the necessary drugs should 
be purchased at a drug store, and may be had for a small part 
of the sum asked for the same in the form of stock food. 

Many experiment stations have made feeding tests which 
have shown that no value was derived from the use of the 
several brands of commercial stock foods. Money expended 
for this class of articles will give far greater returns if used 
for the purchase of ordinary feed. 

Feeding Young Stock and Dry Cows 

108. Calf Raising. The careful dairyman sees in the 
best heifers the possibility of cows that will not only replace 
the discarded members of the herd but help to raise the aver- 
age production. The question is often asked as to whether 
it pays to raise the calf. The answer is that only under 
exceptional conditions can the farmer afford not to raise the 
well-bred heifer calves. Some farmers near large cities where 
feed is high in price find it more profitable to buy all their 
cows, but as a general practice in most farming sections, the 
best heifers should be raised. 

The dairy-bred calf is almost always raised by hand. A 
discussion of the subject is naturally divided into two parts 
on account of the two common conditions : 

1. Calf raising where skim-milk is on hand. 

2. Raising the calf where whole milk is sold. 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 



113 



109. Raising the Calf on Skim-milk. It is well known 
that calves may be raised on skim-milk practically as well 
as when fed whole milk. 
A skim-milk calf is not 
quite so fat during the 
first few weeks but grows 
equally as well as the 
one receiving the un- 
separated milk and de- 
velops into an equally 
good animal. Skim-milk 
differs from whole milk 
only in the much smaller 
amount of butter-fat that 
it contains. 

The calf may be taken from the cow at birth or allowed 
to nurse two or three days. It should be given its mother's 




Fig. 30. — A thrifty Holstein heifer six 
months old, raised on skim-milk after the 
first two weeks with very little grain. It 
was fed 200 pounds of whole milk, and 
2610 pounds of skim-milk. 













nigHmni^^^^^^ ^^^ 1 


Bv i^^^^^^^^^^^H 




^^^^HHtIbhb' 


^^^^^ 




H^ 


7^»r j^^^l 


«t^^^^H w ' 




^^^I^^^^L-__ 


'^^wK^mm 


HIB ^ — ..^JIHHII — ;i 



Fig. 31. — The same animal shown in Fig. 30 when four years old, a 
good type of cow and a good producer. 



114 



DAIRY FARMING 



milk for the first few days, later mixed milk is as good. 
Care must be taken not to overfeed at any time. For the 
first two weeks ten to twelve pounds per day is all that the 
largest calf will require. A small one needs even less. It may 
be fed in two feeds, but three feeds are better for the first 
two or three weeks. Each animal should be fed by itself 

so that it is cer- 
tain to get the 
proper amount 
of milk. As the 
calf gets older 
the amount of 
milk may be in- 
creased some- 
what, but it is 
not necessary to 
feed over 16 
pounds a day at 
any time. A 
large calf can 
take up to 20 pounds without injury. The milk must 
always be fed fresh and sweet. Milk that has been standing 
some time, even if it does not taste sour, is not in the best 
condition for feeding. The milk should have a temperature 
of 90° F. or higher while the calf is young, but later it 
becomes less sensitive to a slight change in temperature. 
After about two weeks the feeder may begin to replace 
the whole milk with skim-milk. This should be done 
gradually, about a week being given to the change. The 
amount fed should not be greater because skim-milk is 
given in place of whole milk. 

By the time the calf is a month old it will begin to eat 




Fig. 32. — A Holstein heifer calf six months old, 
raised on whole milk. Total milk consumed 2960 
pounds. 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 115 

grain. The grain is best fed dry after the milk is drunk. 
Corn meal, linseed meal, oatmeal, or a mixture of all, serves 
almost equally well for this purpose. Where corn is grown 
in abundance, corn meal is most commonly used as it alone 




Fig. 33. — The same animal shown in Fig. 32, when six years old, a good 
milk producer but no better than the one raised on skim-milk. 

has been found equal to any other grain or any combination 
for this purpose. ' The total amount of feed required for a 
calf raised on skim-milk up to the age of six months is 
shown by the following, which is the average amount fed to 
seven calves. 

Whole milk 360 pounds 

Skim-milk 2804 pounds 

Hay 270 pounds 

Grain 113 pounds 

Average weight of calves at birth .... 66 pounds 

Average weight at 180 days 303 pounds 

Average daily gain 1.3 pounds 

The skim-milk calf should have hay placed within reach 
as soon as it is old enough to eat it, or when it is about one 



116 DAIRY FARMING 

month old. The calf does equally well for the first three or 
four months with hay or with pasture grass for roughage. 

Another exceedingly important point is the necessity for 
cleanUness of the pails and troughs used for calf feeding. A 
good rule is to have the calf pails as clean as the milk pails. 
The barn or stalls must also be clean and light. Dark, damp, 
or dirty stalls often result in serious sickness. The best 
part of the barn should be used for the calf pens. The 
raising of the calf on sldm-milk may be summarized as 
follows : 

1. Take the calf from its mother not later than the third 
day. 

2. Feed mother's milk for two weeks, then change gradu- 
ally to skim-milk. 

3. Especially avoid overfeeding. Keep the calf a little 
hungry, and make sure that each calf receives its proper 
amount. 

4. Feed the skim-milk warm and fresh every time. 

5. Feed dry grain, preferably corn meal, as soon as the 
calf will take it. 

6. Keep the utensils and stalls clean at alj times. 

110. Raising Calves when Whole Milk is Sold. The 
main difficulty in calf raising where whole milk is sold on the 
market is the matter of expense. 

To raise a calf on whole milk means that the milk consumed 
may be greater in value than the calf raised. If the calf is fed 
whole milk as freely as skim-milk is given, it would consume 
2000 to 2500 pounds before it is weaned. At $1.50 per hun- 
dredweight, the feed up to six months would represent a 
value of $30 to $38. It is evident that this sum can be 
expended with profit only on very valuable calves. 

As a result of this situation the practice of not raising even 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 111 

the best heifer calves is too common. This pohcy stands 
in the way of improvement of the herd. The IlUnois Ex- 
periment Station found the average profit per cow to be 
$20.53 more each year in those herds in which a pure-bred 
bull was kept and calves raised. 

111. The Use of Milk Substitutes. Several calf meals 
advertised as milk substitutes are on the market. These are 
sold under a trade name and the composition is not given. 
In general they are a mixture of linseed meal, oatmeal, 
wheat middlings, and corn meal. In some cases bean meal, 
ground flaxseed, or skim-milk powder is included. The 
Cornell University Experiment Station ^ obtained good 
results by the use of a commercial calf meal composed of 
oatmeal, wheat meal, flaxseed, and dried skim-milk. The 
calves received in addition a grain mixture consisting of 
corn, oats, and wheat bran, three parts each. The calves 
were fed whole milk alone for the first week after which the 
calf meal was gradually introduced. The feeding of milk 
was gradually reduced until at the end of about one month 
the calves were receiving only the calf meal, grain mixture, 
and hay. Most of the calves were able to grow fairly well 
on this ration, and they developed into good cows. The 
average quantities of feed used up to five months of age 
were : 

Whole milk 226 pounds 

Calf meal .220 pounds 

Grain 109 pounds 

Hay 329 pounds 

Average gain per day 1-1 pounds 

Total cost of feed $14.69 

1 Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 269 
and 304. 



118 DAIRY FARMING 

Excellent results were also obtained by the same station by 
the use of dried skim-milk powder. The quantities of feed 
required for each calf up to five months with this ration were : 

Whole milk 185 pounds 

Milk powder 230 pounds 

Hay 370 pounds 

Grain 114 pounds 

Gain per day 1.25 pounds 

Total cost of feed $11.75 

The Illinois Experiment Station conducted an experiment 
to determine the minimum amount of milk necessary to 
raise a calf. Milk feeding was continued to the age of from 
42 to 56 days. Whole milk was fed the first three weeks 
followed by skim-milk up to the age of eight weeks. It 
was concluded that it is advisable to feed milk long enough 
to give the calves a good start. After the age of eight weeks 
the calves thrived on grain and hay. The grain ration was 
a mixture of corn, 4 parts ; oats, 4 parts ; and bran and lin- 
seed oil meal, 1 part each. The total amounts fed per animal 
were whole milk, 134 pounds ; skim-milk, 422 pounds. The 
total value of the milk used was $4.62 for each calf.^ 

These results show clearly that the milk can be reduced to 
an amount that does not make the cost of raising the calf 
excessive. When grain is substituted for milk under the 
conditions discussed, it must not be expected that the calf 
will appear as fat and thrifty as one receiving milk. How- 
ever, there is no reason for believing that the dairy qualities 
of the cow are injured in any way. If a good ration is fed 
as the calf grows older, it will make up any deficiency in 
size that may result from the lack of more milk in the ration 
when young. 

^ Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 164. 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 



119 



112. Feeding for Veal. To make a good veal requires 
liberal feeding of fresh whole milk. So far no substitute for 
whole milk has been found for this purpose. The best 
quality of veal is produced when the animal receives nothing 
but whole milk and is slaughtered at the age of two months. 
The regulation of the United States Government for inter- 
state commerce requires that the calf be at least three weeks 
old before being put on the market. Many cities also have 
regulations regarding either the age or the weight of veal 
calves. Where such regulations are not enforced the ten*- 
dency is to market the calves younger than this age, since 
when milk is high priced, the younger the calf is sold the 
greater the profit. The first question to be answered is 
whether the calf can be raised profitably for veal. It often 
happens, especially with the breeds having small calves, 
that the milk fed is worth more than the market value of 
the calf when sold. For this reason some do not attempt 
to raise the calf for veal but destroy those not wanted 
for breeding purposes at birth. 

Table 16. — Feed Consumed and Gain First 30 Days 



Breed 


No. 
Calves 


Average 

Birth 

Weight 


Weight 

AT End 

OF 30 

Days 


Average 
Daily 
Gain 


Pounds 
OF Milk 
Con- 
sumed 


Pounds 

Milk per 

Pound 

Gain 


Jersey . . . 
Holstein . . . 
Ayrshire . . . 


10 
8 
2 


49 
83 
70 


88.9 
127.0 
107.0 


1.33 
1.47 
1.23 


376 
441 
344 


9.42 

10.02 

9.31 



The average daily gain of a dairy-bred calf is from 1.2 
to 2 pounds during the firsl few weeks. About 10 pounds of 
whole milk are required for each pound of gain. The data 



120 DAIRY FARMING 

in Table 16 show the average gain and weight for calves of 
three breeds as found by the author. 

113. Feeding the Dairy Heifer. No special difficulties 
are experienced in raising heifer calves from the time of 
weaning until they come into milk. If pasturing is practiced, 
no further attention or additional feed is necessary so long 
as the grass is abundant. The winter ration should consist 
of a good quality of roughage with a small amount of grain. 
A good ration is corn silage and clover or alfalfa hay, with a 
grain allowance of about 2 or 3 pounds daily per animal. 
A more liberal grain ration will cause a more rapid growth 
of the young animals and earlier maturity. It is possible by 
heavy grain feeding to have a heifer as mature at the age of 
18 months as another fed entirely on roughage is at 24 
months. Liberal feeding during the growing period and 
the better condition of the animal which follows result in 
a larger milk yield during the first year than is the case when 
less is fed. The size of the animal when mature is influenced 
to some extent by the manner of feeding during the growing 
period. In experiments by the author, heifers fed a liberal 
ration measured over an inch more in height when mature 
than did heifers fed a ration with less nutrients. ^ At the 
age of 18 months the difference was nearly 3.5 inches, but 
the group receiving the lighter ration continued to grow for 
several months after the heavier fed group had ceased grow- 
ing. The lighter fed group, however, remained slightly 
smaller. Another factor that has some influence on the size 
of the cow when mature is the age at which she comes into 
milk. A heifer that freshens at an early age, for example, 
20 to 22 months for a Jersey, and' 22 to 24 for a Holstein, 
will not develop into so large an animal as she would if she 

^ Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 135. 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 



121 




'^ rr^ ^ -■ 
w ra dj O 



122 



DAIRY FARMING 



were somewhat older. The difference will not be very- 
marked unless the animal has also been fed a light 
ration up to this time and is therefore immature for 
the age. 

Heavy grain feeding when young, accompanied by late 
breeding, will develop a heifer to her maximum size. A 
ration that does not supply an abundance of food in an 
easily digestible form, as, for example, hay and silage alone, 
together with early calving will result in a slower growth 
of the animal and a somewhat smaller size at maturity. 
The best practice to follow is one between these two ex- 
tremes. A heifer fed exclusively on roughage is too slow 
in reaching maturity, while the heavy feeding of grain is too 
expensive. A good development can be had by feeding 
good roughage together with about 2 or 3 pounds of grain 
per day during the winter season. The figures in Table 
17, as found by the writer, will be of assistance to the 
farmer who wishes to know whether his young animals are 
being fed so that their development is up to the average 
of the breed. 

Table 17. — Average Height and Weight of Dairy Heifers 





Jerseys 


HOLSTEINS 


Age 












Height at 
Withers 


Weight 


Height at 
Withers 


Weight 




Inches 


Pounds 


Inches 


Pounds 


6 months 


31.7 


265 


40.8 


350 


9 months 


41.2 


378 


43.4 


444 


12 months 


43.4 


468 


45.6 


548 


15 months 


45.2 


556 


47.4 


620 


18 months 


47.0 


598 


48.8 


710 


24 months 


48.4 


750 


50.0 


900 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 123 

Sufficient data are not at hand for the Guernsey and 
Ayrshire breeds, but they fall between the two breeds given. 

It is well to breed the heifer, so that she will come into 
milk at 24 to 26 months of age if a Jersey or Guernsey, and at 
28 to 30 months if a Holstein or an Ayrshire, the variations 
suggested being made to allow for the size of the animal. 

The milking tendency of the cow when mature is not in- 
fluenced to any appreciable extent by any ordinary variations 
in the ration fed during the growing period. The dairy 
characteristic of a cow is a matter of inheritance and does 
not seem to be influenced to any great extent by over- or under- 
feeding when a heifer. In experiments by the author with 
over 40 animals some of the best milk producers, as well as 
some of the worst, were in a group fed excessively from birth 
to first calving. Another group receiving a light ration up 
to calving time showed the same variation in quality.^ 

114. Salt Requirements. All animals that consume large 
quantities of vegetable food require salt. It is not merely 
an appetizer but a necessity. Animals that live upon meat 
do not have this craving. A cow kept without salt shows 
a strong craving for it during the first few weeks, then quiets 
down into an emaciated condition of low vitahty, which will 
result in a complete breakdown after several months. 

The amount of salt needed varies with the amount of feed 
consumed. A dry cow needs about .75 ounce per day. The 
cow in milk needs the same amount for maintenance and 
in addition about .6 ounce per day for each 20 pounds of 
milk. The amount required therefore for cows yielding from 
20 to 30 pounds of milk per day is about 1.5 ounces. Salt 
may be supplied by mixing the proper amount regularly in 
the feed or it may be placed where the animal can have access 

1 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 135. 



124 DAIRY FARMING 

to it. If the cattle run out every day, the best way to salt 
them is to keep a constant supply in a box in the yard. 
The plan of salting the cattle at intervals of one or two weeks 
is not to be recommended. 

115. Feeding the Cow when Dry. The milk yield of a 
cow throughout her entire lactation period is influenced by 
her condition of flesh at calving time. For good results it 
is very important that she be in good flesh at this time. 
A high producer will yield fully 20 per cent more during the 
year if in good order at calving time. Less trouble is also 
experienced when the calf is born. All mammals naturally 
take on flesh before the young is born. This reserve store 
of food is needed to aid in the production of milk. We 
expect a dairy cow to give several times as much milk as 
the calf requires. The importance of her being fat is there- 
fore all the greater. The grain given to a dry cow is not 
lost. It is used to store up fat in the body for the purpose of 
milk production. If when a good cow is dry, she is fed 
sufficient grain to get her in good flesh, it is just as sure to be 
returned in milk as is the grain fed when the cow is giving 
milk. The astonishing records of milk and fat production 
obtained within recent years from cows under official test are 
due in no small measure to a realization of the importance 
of having the cow well fed before freshening and in a high 
state of flesh. 

The feeding of the cow when dry will depend upon her 
condition when milking ceases. If in good flesh, only a little 
more than a maintenance ration should be given. If not 
in good condition, a more liberal ration is advisable, suffi- 
cient to insure her being in good flesh when she freshens. 
The character of the ration fed at this time need not vary 
materially from that given to the cows in milk. Good pas- 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 125 

ture, legume hay, and roots or silage are adapted for use 
as roughage. As the time for freshening approaches, the 
cow should by all means have a laxative ration if she has 
not been receiving it before ; if on pasture, no special atten- 
tion is called for in this respect. The cow should have ex- 
ercise, and nothing is better than freedom in a smooth pas- 
ture or freedom in a barnyard in winter. 

Feeding the Cow in Milk 

116. Water for Cows. Large amounts of water are 
necessary for producing the milk itself and for the digestion 
and assimilation of the larger quantities of feed required to 
make it. The author found by experiments that a cow 
producing 27 pounds of milk per day drank 77 pounds of 
water. The same cow when dry drank only 15 pounds per 
day. Another cow producing over 100 pounds of milk per 
day used an average of 250 pounds of water. These figures 
show that the water requirement is in proportion to the 
milk produced and the food consumed. They also show that 
the question of water supply is much more important for 
the cow in milk than for the dry cow. Dry cows need not 
be watered more than once daily in winter time and do not 
seem to want it oftener. During the summer the demand 
for water is greater on account of the greater evaporation 
from the skin. Cows on heavy feed, producing large quan- 
tities of milk, should always have access to water at least 
twice daily. For the best results, water of good quality should 
be supphed close at hand, since if the animals are required to 
walk long distances in cold weather, they may not drink a 
sufficient amount and the milk flow may be reduced for this 
reason. Water contaminated by drainage from barnyards 
or with sewage should be avoided for sanitary reasons, as 



126 DAIRY FARMING 

well as for the additional reason that cows maj^ not drink as 
much as is needed for the best results. 

In very cold climates it is profitable to warm the water 
for dairy cows. It is cheaper to warm the water with a tank 
heater by burning coal or wood than to supply the necessary 
heat by allowing the animal to burn high-priced feed in its 
body for this purpose. A cow producing 25 pounds of milk 
daily requires about 1 pound of corn daily to warm the water 
used if it be given at the freezing point. Larger producers 
would require a correspondingly larger amount for this pur- 
pose. An even more important reason for warming water 
is that a heavy-milking cow will not drink enough water if 
it is near the freezing temperature. The activities of the 
organs of digestion and milk secretion are almost stopped 
for a while if a cow drinks 30 or 40 pounds of ice water. 
Where water is warmed it is generally brought to a tempera- 
ture of about 60° F. 

117. Turning on Pasture. Cattle are pastured in summer 
over the greater part of this country and every owner of a 
cow welcomes the time when the cow may be turned out to 
pasture. In changing from dry to green feed it is best to go 
somewhat slowly, especially with heavy-milking cows. The 
young immature grasses are mostly water and it is almost 
impossible for a heavy-milking cow to eat enough to supply 
the necessary nutrients. 

Another reason for making the change slowly is the effect 
upon the taste of the milk. When a cow is changed suddenly 
from grain to grass, the milk may be given a strong taste ; 
while if this change is made gradually, little or no change in 
taste is noticed. 

A common mistake is to pasture too closely in the fall and 
to turn out too early in the spring. The cows should be 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 127 

kept off the pasture until the grass is well started. Grass 
can only grow by having leaves above the ground in contact 
with the air and sunshine. If the cattle are turned out to 
graze while the grass is very short, its growth is slow since 
it has no chance to get enough leaves to prepare its food. 

118. Feeding Grain while on Pasture. The cow that 
produces a small quantity will give but little if any more if 
fed grain while on pasture. However, with the very heavy- 
producing cow the case is quite different, and it is necessary 
that she be fed some grain or she will not continue long on 
the high level of n^ilk production. The high-producing cow 
cannot eat and digest a sufficient amount of grass to supply 
the necessary nutrients and must have some concentrated 
feed in order to continue to produce large quantities of milk. 

Experiments made by the Cornell University Experiment 
Station covering four years showed that while an increase 
of milk yield was obtained from grain feeding it was not 
economical to produce it in this way. Only about one addi- 
tional pound of milk was obtained for each pound of grain 
fed. In these experiments the pasture furnished an abun- 
dance of grasses. It was observed, however, that the cows 
that had grain during the summer gave better results after 
the grazing season was over than those that received no grain. 
This is also a matter of common observation by dairymen and 
should be taken into account in considering the question of 
summer feeding. The practice of the writer in regard to grain 
feeding on pasture is represented in the following statement : 

Jersey or Guernsey cow, producing : 

20 pounds milk daily 2 pounds grain daily 

25 pounds milk daily 3 pounds grain daily 

30 pounds milk daily 6 pounds grain daily 

35 pounds milk daily 8 pounds grain daily 



128 DAIRY FARMING 

Holstein^ Shorthorn, or Ayrshire, producing : 

25 pounds milk daily 2 pounds grain daily 

30 pounds milk daily 3 pounds grain daily 

35 pounds milk daily 5 pounds grain daily 

40 pounds milk daily 7 pounds grain daily 

It must be kept in mind that this apphes only when pas- 
tures are abundant. When a small amount of grain is fed 
as a supplement to pasture, little attention is necessary as 
to the relative amount of protein and carbohydrates that 
it contains. When corn is the cheapest grain, it may be fed 
alone if desired. Any mixture of common concentrates 
serves the purpose, since it is total digestible nutrients that is 
needed and the protein is usually supplied in ample amounts 
by the grass. When larger amounts of grain are fed, more 
care must be taken to have enough protein. 

119. Providing for Periods of Short Pasture. Unfortu- 
nately the season of abundant pastures is often short. In 
many localities a dry period of several weeks often occurs 
at times during the summer season. It is probable that as 
much loss occurs from improper feeding at such times as 
is caused by improper feeding during the winter. As long 
as the cows are on pasture, and other work is pressing, the 
farmer is inclined to let the cows get along the best they can. 

It is well known to all experienced dairymen that if a 
cow is once allowed to decline in her milk production, it is 
difficult to bring her back to normal. To make a large 
profit from the cow, a large yearly production must be had 
and to obtain this ordinarily requires that the flow of milk 
be kept up for 10 months out of the year. It is possible to 
supplement short pasture by the feeding of grain, but this is 
as a rule unnecessarily expensive. It will pay, however, if 
no other feed is available. Provision for short pasture is 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 129 

best made either by having green crops on hand that may be 
cut for feed, or by feeding silage or alfalfa hay during this 
period. The use of green crops cut and taken to the animals 
is known as the soiling system. In recent years the use of 
corn silage for summer feeding is meeting with the greatest 
favor and promises to displace the practice of soiling to a 
large extent, because it is much less expensive. For summer 
feeding a silo of small diameter is recommended in order that 
the silage may be fed fast enough to prevent spoiling. If the 
silage is not needed it can be kept for winter use. 

120. Amount to Feed. One of the most common mistakes 
made in feeding cows is in not feeding them enough. If a 
cow does not respond in milk yield when well fed, she should 
be sold. The cheapest production is obtained from a high- 
producing cow well fed. The cow may be looked upon as 
a milk-producing machine, which we supply with the raw 
material in the form of feed. This raw material is manu- 
factured into milk. The same rule holds as with any manu- 
facturing plant; it is run most economically near its full 
capacity. One should understand that, first of all, the animal 
must use a certain amount of its food to maintain the body. 
This is called the ration of maintenance and is practically 
the same whether the animal is being utilized for full capacity 
or merely being kept without producing any milk at all. 
About 50 per cent of all the feed she can consume is used by 
a medium dairy cow for this purpose. It is evident that 
after going to this expense it is the poorest economy to re- 
fuse to give the other 50 per cent of a full ration, which would 
be used entirely for milk production. Since only half of a 
full ration is available for making milk, it is clear that if 
through mistaken ideas of economy the cow is fed 75 per cent 
of a full ration the amount she has available for producing 



130 DAIRY FARMING 

milk is reduced 50 per cent. The heavy-milking cow is the 
one most commonly underfed. It is often observed that 
heavy-milking cows rapidly get thin in flesh after calving and 
may drop greatly in the amount of milk within a short time. 
This is the result of underfeeding. If a certain cow has a 
capacity to produce only 25 pounds of milk daily and is al- 
ready receiving enough feed for this amount, it is a waste of 
feed to increase her ration as she will not correspondingly 
increase in milk. If a cow of this type is given more feed 
than she needs, she uses part of it for laying on fat and soon 
commences to appear smooth and beefy. The practical 
question arises then as to what means may be employed to 
determine how much feed a certain cow needs. The most 
accurate plan is to calculate the ration according to the feed- 
ing standard as described in paragraph 92. 

There are in addition certain observations that may be 
made the basis of practical feeding operations. One is the 
condition of the animal in regard to flesh. The inclination 
to give milk is so strong in a good cow that when underfed 
she will continue for some time to give more than is provided 
for by her ration and will supply the remaining material that is 
required from her body. This results in a gradual loss in 
weight. When a cow in milk loses weight, it means that 
she is underfed and unless her ration is increased soon she 
will drop materially in milk yield. On the other hand if a 
cow in milk is gaining in weight, it is evident that she is 
getting more feed than she is using and her ration may be 
cut down. 

Another suggestion is to note carefully the amount of milk 
the cow produces at her best, which will be within a short 
time after calving. Then be sure to feed enough to sup- 
port this amount of milk production. Later, as she declines, 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 131 

due to the advance in the lactation period, reduce the feed to 
correspond to the dechne in milk. 

The following rules serve as a general guide for practical 
feeding : 

1. Feed all the roughage the cows will eat up clean at all 
times. 

2. Feed 1 pound of grain per day for each pound of fat 
produced per week, or 1 pound of grain per day for each 

3 pounds of milk produced by Jersey ; 3| by Ayrshire ; and 

4 by Holstein. 

3. Feed all that the cows will take without gaining in 
weight. 

It is best to become accustomed to thinking in terms of 
weight rather than in terms of measure in calculating rations 
and feeding dairy cows. It is often more convenient when 
feeding to measure than to weigh the feed. The most prac- 
tical plan generally is to feed with a measure and weigh the 
feed mixture used often enough to make it possible to esti- 
mate closely how much is required by measure to give the 
weight desired. 

121. The Balanced Ration. The most common mistake 
made in feeding dairy cows, next to underfeeding, is giving 
too little protein. This mistake is especially common in 
the corn-belt on account of the wide use of corn and timothy 
hay, both very deficient in protein. Where alfalfa hay is 
fed the ration nearly always has enough protein. A milking 
cow must use a certain amount of protein, and no other 
material can take its place. A ration is said to be balanced 
when the protein and carbohydrates are in the right pro- 
portion. 

It is not possible to make a good ration by using corn and 
timothy hay unless large quantities of mill feeds rich in 



132 DAIRY FARMING 

protein are fed. In formulating a ration the roughage is 
the first consideration, since the character of this portion 
largely determines the kind of grain to be fed. The cheapest 
source of protein is generally leguminous hay, such as clover, 
alfalfa, or cowpea. If an abundance of any one of these 
can be grown, the problem of making an economical ration 
is greatly simplified. If alfalfa hay is fed, it is not necessary 
to use concentrates that are rich in proteins. If mixed 
hay and corn silage are used, at least one-third of the grain 
should be rich in protein. 

122. Succulent Feed. In order to obtain the best re- 
sults it is necessary to have a portion of the ration of a suc- 
culent character. This term is applied to feeds that contain 
much water, such as green grass, corn silage, roots, and 
cabbage. Such feeds seem to have a value outside of the 
actual nutrients they contain on account of the favorable 
effect upon the digestion of the animal. In the corn-belt, 
corn silage furnishes the cheapest and best succulent feed 
for winter. In other sections, especially north of the corn- 
belt, the growing of root crops is generally practicable. They 
supply this desirable element of the ration in an entirely 
satisfactory form. 

123. Palatability of the Ration. An animal will give better 
results if it rehshes its ration. Sometimes even if a feed 
containing enough nutrients is offered, a sufficient amount 
is not eaten on account of a lack of palatability. Hay and 
other coarse feeds show the most variation in this respect, 
depending upon time of cutting and manner of curing. It 
is advisable to have the grain composed of a mixture of two 
kinds or more as this increases palatability. A ration for 
very high-producing cows should be a mixture of five or 
six feed^uffs. Succulent feeds are always palatable and 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 133 

they aid digestion by keeping the animal in good condition. 
When a good ration has been selected there is no reason for 
change for the sake of variety. If the animal craves a change 
in ration, it is an indication that the ration it has been receiv- 
ing is deficient in some particular. 

124. Order of Feeding. Regularity in feeding is of 
greater importance than any special routine. The common 
practice is to feed twice daily giving about one-half the grain 
and roughage at each feed. The grain is generally fed first 
and the hay feeding reserved until the milking is done to 
avoid having dust in the barn. Silage should also be fed 
after milking to prevent possible odors in the milk. The 
cow readily becomes accustomed to a certain routine and 
this should not be varied any more than is absolutely neces- 
sary. She may be accustomed to receive grain either before 
or after milking, or be easily taught to demand it while the 
milking is being done. 

Feeding Cows for the Maximum Production in 
Official Tests 

125. Obtaining the Maximum Production. The maxi- 
mum production is obtained from high-producing cows by 
a combination of expert handling and the best possible 
ration. Such cows cannot be fed entirely by any rule, nor 
can their ration be calculated by a formula. The individual 
animal and her characteristics must be taken into account. 
One of the essential things is having the animal in the proper 
condition of flesh at calving. She should be dry for two 
months or more for the best results, and be fed a liberal 
amount of grain during this period. Some form of suc- 
culence is absolutely necessary as a part of the ration. 
Roots, such as common beets, sugar beets, or mangels are 



134 DAIRY FARMING 

even better than silage for this purpose, and may be fed up 
to 50 pounds or more per day. 

The cow must be brought up to the full ration carefully 
after calving, using about three weeks for this purpose. The 
grain ration should consist of a mixture of several concen- 
trates, all of which are palatable. So long as the animal re- 
mains in normal condition, no change in the grain ration is 
necessary. Special attention must be given to the physical 
condition of the cow. A careful herdsman always closely 
observes the character of the dung excreted, and learns 
to judge when the digestion is normal. At the first 
indication of lack of a keen appetite the ration is cut down 
until the animal is again in condition to utilize the full 
amount. If the digestion gives indication of even sUght 
disorder, a purgative, such as Epsom salts, 1 to IJ pounds 
at a dose, should be administered at once. The grain 
should always be eaten with a relish, and the animal 
should show a disposition to want a little more than she 
receives. 

A ration for a heavy-milking cow must be rich in 
protein. Much more grain should be fed in proportion 
to the roughage than with an ordinary producer. In 
fact, for the maximum production of a great producer, 
the nutrients will need to be largely supplied by con- 
centrates. 

The following daily ration was fed by the writer to a Jersey 
cow that was producing daily 40 pounds of milk, containing 
2 pounds of fat. The cow weighed about 900 pounds and 
produced during the year 13,895 pounds of milk and 680 
pounds of fat. The same grain mixture was fed during the 
greater part of the milking period, including the pasture 
season. 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 135 

Pounds 

Corn silage . . « 15. 

Alfalfa hay 15. 

Corn meal 3.5 

Bran 3.5 

Oats 3.5 

Oil meal 1.5 

Total roughage per day 30., 

Total grain per day 12. 

A Holstein cow under charge of the author was fed the 
following amounts daily while producing an average of 100 
pounds of milk daily. 

Pounds 

Corn silage 15. 

Alfalfa hay 20. 

Dried beet pulp 4. 

Corn meal . 6.1 

Bran . 6.1 

Oats 6.1 

Gluten feed 1.9 

Linseed meal 1.9 

Cottonseed meal 1.9 

Total roughage 35. 

Total concentrates 28. 

The grain ration was prepared by mixing 100 pounds 
each of corn, bran, and oats, and 30 pounds each of the last 
three named above. One pound of dried beet pulp was added 
to six pounds of the grain mixture and the entire mass 
moistened with water some time before feeding. The cow 
was fed and milked four times each twenty-four hours. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Distinguish between composition of a feed, digestible nutri- 
ents, and production value. 

2. Define concentrate, succulent, roughage, corn stover. 

3. What succulent winter feeds are used in your region ? 

4. What common feeds of your region are high in protein? 



136 DAIRY FARMING 

5. Calculate the amounts of corn and clover hay required to 
maintain a cow weighing 1000 pounds. 

6. Find the amount of protein and energy required for a 1250- 
pound cow producing 40 pounds of milk daily, containing 3.5 per 
cent of fat. 

7. From the feeds in Table 15, calculate a ration that will sat- 
isfy the conditions in problem 6. How does the ration agree with 
the standards on page 304 ? 

8. Find the protein and energy in the following rations : 

Ration 1 Ration 2 

Corn silage 30 lb. Timothy hay . . . . 12 lb, 

Alfalfa hay 10 lb. Corn fodder 10 lb. 

Corn 6 1b. Corn 6 1b. 

Cottonseed meal . . . 1 lb. Bran 1 lb. 

What is the Umiting factor in the second ration? 
For how much 3.5 per cent milk does each ration supply protein 
in addition to maintaining a 1000-pound cow ? 

9. Calculate a ration for a 900-pound Jersey cow giving 23 
pounds of milk daily, using the common feeds of the region. 

10. When bran is worth $20, cottonseed meal $30, clover hay $10 
per ton ; and corn 70 cents, and oats 50 cents per bushel, find which 
is the cheapest source of protein. Which is the cheapest source of 
energy ? 

11. Obtain the local prices of purchased feeds in the region. 
Which is the cheapest source of energy ? Of protein ? 

12. With prices given in problem 11, calculate the cheapest 
possible satisfactory ration for a Shorthorn cow weighing 1200 
pounds and giving 30 pounds of milk daily. 

13. Is skim-milk usually available for calf feeding in this region? 
What are the common calf feeds used ? 

14. Let each student find the approximate amounts of milk and 
other feeds used in raising a calf to six months of age for his own farm 
or some other farm. At normal prices, what is the feed worth? 
Have aU these reports compared and averaged. Compare with 
results on pages 115, 250 and 252. 

15. Proceed in a similar manner to find the usual method of feed- 
ing heifers in the region. 

16. What is the usual date for turning cows to pasture in your 
region? About what times are they taken off of pasture in the 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 



137 



fall? At what time are the pastures not likely to furnish enough 
feed? 

17. What effect does the manner of feeding the heifer have on 
the amount of milk that she is likely to give as a heifer ? As a ma- 
ture cow? 

18. What conclusion would you draw from observing that a 
cow when giving milk was gradually getting thinner? What con- 
clusion if she were gaining in flesh? 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

9. Raising a Calf. Let each student who can arrange to do so, 
raise a calf, following the directions that apply to the conditions. 
Keep track of all the feed used, and see if the calf can be raised at 
less than the usual cost. This is particularly important in regions 
where whole milk is sold. 

10. Study of Feeding on a Dairy Farm. Obtain permission to 
visit a dairy farm, preferably one where the farmer has scales that 
will weigh cattle ; or students may do this work for herds on their 
home farms. A spring balance and tape measure will be required. 

Make a list of the cows in the herd, and find out the following 
facts about each. Or if the herd is too large, use five or six cows 
that are giving different amounts of milk. Each student may do 
the work for one cow. 



Cow 1 



Cow 2 



Cow 3 



Cow 4 



Age 

Breed 

Weight 

Pounds milk . . . 
Per cent fat .... 

Protein for maintenance 
Protein for milk 

Total .... 
Protein of food . . . 

Energy for maintenance 
Energy for milk 

Total .... 
Energy of food . . . 
Gaining or losing flesh 



138 DAIRY FARMING 

How much milk is each giving? If the farmer does not know, 
arrangements can be made to have one student or the farmer weigh 
the milk for one or two days. What mixture of grain is fed? 
How much grain is each getting? If the farmer does not know 
the weight of a day's feed, he can measure out what he is using 
and this can be weighed. What does the grain mixture weigh per 
quart? In the same way the amounts of silage and other feeds 
may be obtained. Weigh each cow. Ask the farmer's opinion 
as to which cows are gaining and which losing in flesh. Obtain 
samples of milk for each cow, and test for fat. 

Calculate the amount of energy and protein for maintenance 
of each cow, the amount necessary for milk production, and the 
amount in the feed. The results may be summarized in a table Uke 
the one shown on page 137. 

Does it seem probable that any one of the cows is not obtaining 
enough protein or enough energy? Are there practical ways in 
which the ration may be cheapened by using different feeds? It 
may be that the farmer will be willing to experiment with increasing 
or decreasing the feed or with using a different mixture. If he is 
willing to do so, the results should be followed carefully. 

11. Raising Heifers. Obtain measurements of a number of 
heifers, and compare with the results on page 122. 

COLLATERAL READING 

Computing Rations for Farm Animals by Use of Energy Values, 
U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 346. 

Handling and Feeding Silage, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 
578. 

The Feeding of Farm Animals, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulle- 
tin 22. 

Feeding Skim-milk Calves, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' BuUetin 
233, pp. 22-25. 

Feeds and Feeding, Henry and Morrison. 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. Ill, pp. 
56-118, 308, 310, 313-317. 

The Feeding of Animals, W. H. Jordan. 

Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, C. H. Eckles, pp. 254-294. 



CHAPTER 6 
THE DAIRY BARN 

C. H. ECKLES 

It is only within recent years that the arrangement and 
construction of the dairy barn has been given the attention 
that its importance justifies. It pays to have a comfortable 




Fig. 35. — Interior of a well-arranged barn. 

barn on account of the larger production of milk which re- 
sults. The arrangement of the barn is also an important 
factor in efficient use of labor and in keeping the workers 
contented. There is a growing demand for better sanitary 
conditions surrounding the milk supply, and this means 

139 



140 



DAIRY FARMING 



that barns must be constructed with more attention to those 
details that make it possible to keep milk clean. 

126. General Arrangement of Barns. The style of barn 
construction will necessarily vary with the locality, climate, 
and many other factors. The interior arrangements of the 
cow barn, however, may be much the same in barns differ- 
ing widely in general plan of construction. The most com- 
mon arrangement of dairy cows in a barn is in two rows, 



id^T^-R — Att£Y- 




32-0- 



d:^ 



3 c 



M i"iT^ i^n^^i I 



'G-izk 



ALLZV 



io 






/o\ c|oi4' |S7[aZJZ>SJ 



D C 



'■ U ■ — I u 



i(c) 



Fig, 36. — Floor plan of a good barn in which the cows face the center. 
The calf pens and milk room are not shown. 

facing either towards the center or towards the wall. If a 
manure carrier is used, it is most convenient to have the 
heads together, as this saves time in feeding with no loss in 
cleaning. If a wagon is to be driven through the barn for 
cleaning, the cows should face the wall. More than two 
rows require that the barn be too wide for efficient lighting 
and for convenience in handling the cattle. The barn should 
be located where there is good drainage and where it is con- 
venient from the standpoint of labor. 

127. Lighting. One of the most serious defects in many 
barns, especially in old ones, is lack of sufficient hght. A 
light barn is more healthful for the animals, and it is the 
first step toward removing the objectionable features often 



THE DAIRY BARN 



141 



connected with dairy work. A dark barn is almost always 
a dirty barn. By having plenty of sunlight, dirty conditions 
are easily seen and are usually corrected. There should be 
about four square feet of glass per cow. The best arrange- 
ment is to have the windows extend from the ceiling about 





o 



Fig. 37. — Floor plan of a barn for 20 cows. 

halfway to the floor, as this makes it possible for the sunhght 
to reach farther into the barn. 

128. The Floor. One of the most important considerations 
of all is the floor. A satisfactory floor is comfortable for 
the cows, sanitary, easily cleaned, durable, and not too ex- 
pensive. The floors most commonly used are wood, con- 
crete, or dirt, with wood or concrete gutters. A floor of 
dirt, although comfortable for the cows, is only aUowable 
under conditions where it is not possible to have a better 



142 



DAIRY FARMING 



one. The main objection, of course, is that it cannot be 
kept clean. A fairly good arrangement in a cheap barn is 
a dirt floor for the cows to stand upon with a cement gutter 
behind, provided with a strip extending forward about one 
foot to catch the urine. A tight wooden floor is comfortable 
for the cows and may be kept in good sanitary condition if 




Fig. 38. — A well-lighted barn. 

in good repair. The main objection to this material is its 
high first cost and lack of durability. Concrete is durable 
and sanitary, but not so comfortable for the cows as the others. 
It requires a liberal use of bedding. In putting in a con- 
crete floor care must be taken to have the surface given a 
rough finish, otherwise the animals will slip and sooner or 
later seriously injure themselves. It is not necessary to 
make the floor as thick as is sometimes recommended. 
On solid earth four inches is as good as more. 

129. The Platform. The best arrangement for keeping 
cows clean is the platform and gutter. It is well to have the 
platform about 6 inches wider at one end than at the other 



THE DAIRY BARN 



143 



SO that the cows may be arranged in order of size and fit 
the platform. The same result may be accomplished by 
having the platform on one side of the barn wider than that 




Fig. 39. — Cross section of a barn with cows facing the center. The style 
of manger may be varied as shown in Fig. 41. The length of the platform 
should be varied to suit the breed. 

on the other. The width of the platform from manger to 
gutter should vary to suit the breed. The length of platform 
needed for animals from 2 years old to the largest cows is 
given in Table 18. 

Table 18. — Length of Platform Required for Different 

Breeds 



Breed 


Shortest 


Longest 


Average 


Jersey .... 
Guernsey . . . 
Ayrshire .... 
Holstein .... 
Shorthorn . . . 


48 inches 
50 inches 
50 inches 
54 inches 
54 inches 


56 inches 
58 inches 
58 inches 
62 inches 
62 inches 


54 inches 
56 inches 
56 inches 
60 inches 
60 inches 



The platform should slope about one inch from the manger 
to the gutter. It is better to have it rise half the way back 
and then slope to the gutter. This helps to prevent the 
front feet from slipping and causing injury to the knees. A 
very good platform can be made by laying 2 inches of con- 
crete, then a layer of tar paper, and on this place IJ to 2 
inches of concrete. The paper extends to within about 4 
inches of the gutter. The tar paper prevents moisture from 



144 



DAIRY FARMING 




Fig. 40. — jModern stalls and ties. Steel 
construction gives a neat appearance, is 
sanitary, strong, and durable. 



rising and, by stopping the loss of heat, also makes the con- 
crete warmer for the cow to lie on. One of the best floor 
arrangements is one in which the floor, manger, and passage- 
ways are of concrete with a wooden platform on top of the 

concrete under the cows. 

In this case two inches 
of concrete under the 
plank is sufficient if 
placed on solid ground. 
130. The Gutter. The 
gutter is often made too 
shallow. It should be 
preferably about 8 or 9 
inches deep and about 
16 inches wide and should 
be tight to prevent urine 
from getting under the floor. A common plan is to have the 
passageway behind the animals 2 to 4 inches lower than 
the platform. 

131. The Stalls. When the cow is tied in a stanchion, 
the stall should be 42 to 44 inches wide for the large breeds, 
while 36 to 42 inches is sufficient for the smaller breeds. 
Partitions are used in many barns, but some dairymen pre- 
fer to dispense with them for the sake of facilitating the move- 
ment of the cows in getting in and out of the stalls, and for 
convenience in doing chores. 

132. Mangers. Concrete is the best material for mangers 
from the standpoint of sanitation and durability. The most 
common type of concrete manger is the continuous, which 
is built in the form of a trough before the cows. By having 
the feed alley raised, feed can be swept into the manger with- 
out lifting. (See Fig. 36.) The main advantage of this 



THE DAIRY BARN 



145 



style is the ease of feeding and cleaning. It may also be used 
for watering in the barn. Some objections are made to this 
style of construction on account of the chance it affords for 
one cow to rob another of a portion of its feed. Partitions 



TYPES OF MAN6ERS 




wmm: 



Fig. 41. — Types of mangers. 

of sheet iron or concrete are sometimes used to overcome this 
difficulty. 

133. Ties. The cow should be fastened so that she Hes 
down exactly where she stands or a little forward if possible. 
The most objectionable way is to tie a cow to a manger so 
that she must back up to he down. This results in covering 
the cow with filth. The most common ties in use are various 
forms of stanchions. There is no better way to keep the cow 
clean than to tie her with a stanchion, properly constructed, 
and stand her on a platform of the right dimensions pro- 



146 



DAIRY FARMING 



vided with a gutter of sufficient depth. The old style rigid 
stanchion is not a satisfactory tie, as the cow has no free- 
dom and cannot lie in a natural position. Many forms of 
stanchions are in use that are entirely satisfactory. These 
are generally hung on short chains at top and 
bottom and are constructed of either wood or 
steel. The double post slip chain tie is equally 
comfortable for the animals, but not so con- 
venient for use. Stanchion or chain ties may 
be attached to either iron or wooden frame- 
work as supports. 

134. Ventilation. An abundance of fresh 
air is as essential as plenty of feed. The most 
simple form of ventilation is by windows. This 
works best when the sash is hinged in the mid- 
dle or at the bottom so that the air can be 
admitted by tipping the top of the window sash 
slightly into the room. This throws the air 
towards the ceiling and away from the animals. 
This form of ventilation can be used satisfac- 
torily in mild climates. In northern latitudes 
it is not satisfactory during severe weather on 
account of the difficulty of properly controlhng 
the intake of air during rapid changes of wind 
and temperature. 

The best form of ventilation yet devised is the 
King system. This consists of a large flue, opening near the 
floor and extending above the roof, for taking out foul air. A 
number of smaller openings arranged at intervals of 10 to 12 
feet along the walls allow for the intake of air. The intakes 
open to the outer air near the ground, pass upwards inside the 
wall and open into the barn near the ceiling. These open- 




FiG. 42. — 
A common tie 
for dairy cows. 
This stanchion 
is of steel with 
a wooden lin- 
ing and hangs 
on chains at 
the top and 
bottom to al- 
low freedom of 
movement. 



THE DAIRY BARN 



147 



ings should be provided with means for closing if the wind 
pressure causes too rapid movement of the air. 

135. Cost of Barns. The price of milk, climate, cost of 
lumber, and many other factors influence the cost of dairy 
barns. Where milk is high in price and where a correspond- 
ing quahty is demanded, a very different barn will be required 
from the kind needed 
when milk goes to the 
creamery. If valuable 
pure-bred stock is kept, 
a somewhat more expen- 
sive barn may be justified 
than would be needed for 
ordinary cows, because a 
good barn may help one 
to sell the stock. Some 
very good dairy barns 
built where 
moderate in 
cost of $50 
Unless milk 




'.- 



have been 
lumber is 
price at a 
per cow. 



FLUES ARC AT END OF BARN 

Fig. 43. — Cross section of a barn show- 
ing the King sj'stem of ventilation. The 
air enters near the ceiling on the sides and 
is drawn out through large flues opening 
near the floor. 



sells at a very high price, 

one should certainly hesitate to spend more than $100 per 
cow for the barn, including milk room, and silo, and storage 
place for the other dairy feeds. 

On the corn-belt farm, where few cows are kept and where 
there is an abundance of straw, the cows may run in an open 
shed. If there is a milking shed in which the cows are milked 
and fed grain, very clean milk may be obtained. No system 
is better for the health of the animals than running loose 
in a good shed, but where dairying is made the primary 
business a regular dairy barn is ordinarily desired. 



148 DAIRY FARMING 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. What materials are used for barn floors in your region ? 
Describe the floor in some good barn, and tell how it was 
made. 

2. What different kinds of stanchions are used? 

3. Are manure carriers used in any barns? If so, what kind is 
used, and what did it cost? 

4. Does any barn in the region have the King system of ventila- 
tion? If so, describe it. 

5. If any barn has been built in the region in the past few years, 
find the cost per cow. 

6. Draw a floor plan for a barn to hold 6 horses, 15 cows, and 
young stock. Or change the numbers of stock to suit the condi- 
tions. Show dimensions of stalls, mangers, etc., and location of 
milk house. 



LABORATORY EXERCISES 

12. Study of a Barn. Arrange with the owner to visit a good 
dairy barn in the region, and study its general arrangement. A 
tape measure and thermometer will be required. 

Some of the points to be determined are as follows : 

Length, width, height of posts, height of peak, height of ceiling 
in cow barn. 

Capacity for hay, silage, grain. See page 305. 

Make a diagram of a cross section of the floor similar to figure 39, 
indicating the dimensions of the feed alley, manger, platform, 
gutter, etc. 

How wide a place is allowed for each cow? 

What kind of stanchions are used? What did they cost? 

How many cubic feet of air space is there per cow? 

What system of ventilation is used? Did the air appear to be 
good when you entered the barn? What is the temperature in the 
barn? 

How are the windows arranged? How many square feet of 
glass is there per cow ? 

Is there a milk house ? How many feet must be traveled with the 
milk from each cow? 

Are the arrangements for feeding the cows and for cleaning the 
barn convenient? 



THE DAIRY BARN 149 

COLLATERAL READING 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. I, pp. 
245-260. 

Ice Houses and the Use of Ice on the Dairy Farm, U. S. Dept. 
Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 623. 

A Plan for a Small Dairy House, U. S. Dept. Agr,, Farmers' Bulle- 
tin 689. 

Lightning and Lightning Conductors, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers* 
Bulletin 367. 

Homemade Silos, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 589. 

Ventilation for Dwellings, Rural Schools and Stables, F. H. King. 

Cost of Fencing Farms in the North Central States, U. S. Dept. 
Agr., Bulletin 321. 



CHAPTER 7 
COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 

C. H. ECKLES 

The author makes no attempt at giving directions for 
the treatment of such diseases and accidents as call for the 
services of the competent veterinarian. The farmer should 
depend largely upon the qualified veterinarian as his adviser 
in matters concerning the health of his animals, but there 
are certain common troubles that every manager of dairy 
cows should know how to handle. The discussion which 
follows aims to present a few of the facts that every dairy- 
man should know. The discussions are in the nature of 
advice for the owner of dairy stock and are not expected to 
take the place of expert advice by the veterinarian. 

Normal Conditions 

136. The Pulse. The heart of the cow normally beats 
50 to 60 times per minute. It is more rapid in young animals 
than in old, and is increased by excitement or exercise. The 
most convenient way to take the pulse of a cow is to stand 
on her left side and reach over the neck and feel the pulse 
on the lower side of the right jaw. A quick, bounding pulse 
indicates inflammation at some point in the body. The 
trained veterinarian becomes very skillful in diagnosing dis- 
ease by the feeling of the pulse. 

150 



COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 151 

137. Temperature. The normal temperature of a cow 
usually varies between 99° and 103° F. The temperature is 
taken by means of a self-registering, or clinical, thermometer. 
Before using it the mercury is shaken down. The instrument 
is placed in the rectum for at least three minutes before 
the reading is made. 

A rise in temperature indicates fever due to inflammation 
at some point in the body. A rise of 4 degrees is serious, 
while as much as 6 degrees is dangerous. A sudden fall in 
temperature is also serious. The dairyman should provide 
himself with a good clinical thermometer and become fa- 
miliar with its use. 

138. Respiration. A cow normally breathes from 10 to 
25 times per minute. Rapid breathing may be caused by 
exercise, heat, or excitement, or by distention of the stomach 
with gaseous food to such an extent that the lung capacity 
is diminished. Rapid, short, or difficult breathing usually 
signifies trouble with the respiratory organs. 

139. The Excretions. The excretions of an animal, the 
urine and feces, or dung, show the general condition of the 
digestive tract and kidneys. The stockman should be quick 
to observe any abnormality in this respect and determine 
the cause if possible. It is especially important to observe 
the feces of the cow when she is under conditions of high 
feeding as this is the best index of the state of her digestion. 
The knowledge necessary to interpret the various conditions 
that appear can only be had by experience and observation. 

Instruments and Medicines 

140. Instruments and Medicine. Every manager of a 
herd of dairy cattle should be prepared for the ordinary emer- 
gencies. If a competent veterinarian is not readily accessi- 



152 



DAIRY FARMING 



ble, this is all the more important. The following instru- 
ments and medicines are most often needed, and it is 
advisable to have them on hand : 

Milk fever outfit, if high-producing cows are kept 

2 milk tubes of different sizes 

3 teat plugs of different sizes 

Trocar, if there is much trouble from bloating 
Syringe 

Drenching bottle 
Clinical thermometer 

A liberal amount of carbolic acid or some other good dis- 
infectant should always be on hand, as frequent use will be 
found for it. Crude carbolic acid can be used in a 2 per cent 
solution, when applied to the animal's body, or in a 5 per 
. A cent solution for disinfecting other objects, such 

CO <db as the floor of the barn, or instruments. 

An abundant supply of Epsom salts should 
also be provided, as occasion for using it will 
come often. In most herds entirely too little 
use is made of this important medicine. A 
dose of 1 to IJ pounds of salts for the grown 
animal should be the first treatment in nearly 
all cases of sickness. In every case where an 
animal shows loss of appetite or sickness the 
cause of which is not known, a physic should 
be given at once and the feed reduced. A 
second dose after three or four days is often beneficial. If 
the appetite of the animal has returned, the ration can again 
be increased to the normal. 

141. Drenching a Cow. The common method of admin- 
istering medicine to a cow is to mix with water and give from 
a bottle. This is known as a " drench." When giving a 






Fig. 44. — 
Milking tubes, 
used when 
teats are in- 
jured or sore. 



COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 153 

drench, the head of the animal should be elevated by tying, 
or it may be held by an assistant. The operator stands on 
the left side, and grasps the nose with the thumb and fingers 
in the nostrils. The bottle used should be adapted for the 
purpose, having a long, strong neck. The mouth of the 
bottle should be inserted in front of the back teeth resting 
on the tongue as far back as the middle. If the animal 
coughs, the head should be at once lowered to allow the liquid 
to escape from the windpipe. If this is not done, the med- 
icine may pass down into the lungs, and cause sickness. 
Unless there is some special reason for doing so, it is not 
customary to give over 1 to 2 quarts at a time. Unless the 
herdsman is thoroughly informed regarding the treatment of 
cattle ailments, he will seldom have occasion to administer 
medicine other than Epsom or Glauber salts except under 
the direction of a veterinarian. 

Common Ailments 

142. Milk Fever. Milk fever occurs only with high-pro- 
ducing cows. It never affects a cow with her first calf and 
rarely with the second. The well-fed, heavy-milking cow 
is the one most likely to be stricken. The disease is so typi- 
cal that it is easily recognized. In practically every case 
it occurs within 48 hours after calving. Every heavy -milk- 
ing cow should be watched carefully until this time has 
elapsed. The first symptoms are restlessness and excite- 
ment. Within a short time paralysis of the hind legs be- 
gins, resulting in a staggering gait. The animal soon falls 
and is unable to rise. The cow assumes a characteristic 
position, which is of great value in diagnosing the disease. 
The head is turned to one side and rests on the chest with the 
muzzle pointing towards the flank. When this position is 



154 



DAIRY FARMING 



assumed, the cow becomes unconscious and remains so until 
death, which occurs within about 24 hours if treatment is 
not given. Fortunately the air treatment, which was dis- 
covered a few years ago by Anderson in Denmark, makes it 

possible to relieve nearly every case. 
When this is properly applied, the cow 
will recover completely within a few 
hours and no bad effects follow. With- 
out treatment, recovery seldom occurs. 
An approved apparatus is shown in 
Fig. 45. The essential parts are a 
milk tube, a receptacle of some kind 
in which clean cotton is placed to catch 
the dust in the air pumped through it, 
and a rubber bulb or pump of some 
kind. In case a regular apparatus is 
not at hand, one that will serve the 
purpose can be improvised from mate- 
rials generally found in a drug store. 

In using the apparatus the operator 
should first thoroughly clean his hands, 
likewise the cow's udder and teats, 
with warm water and soap, followed 
by a 2 per cent solution of carbohc 
acid or creoUn. That portion of the apparatus which 
holds the cotton, the rubber tube, and milk tube, must be 
clean, and preferably boiled for 15 minutes before using, 
then disinfected by the use of the carbolic acid or creolin. 
The receptacle for holding the cotton is filled with ordinary 
cotton, or, better still, absorbent cotton, which may be 
purchased at most drug stores. The milk tube is inserted 
into one of the teat openings without drawing any milk, and 




Fig. 45. — Milk Fever 
outfit. The milk tube is 
inserted in the milk duct 
of the teat and air is 
pumped through steri- 
lized cotton placed in the 
small cylinder. 



COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 155 

air is pumped through the cotton into the udder. This is 
continued until the quarter is well distended with air, when 
the tube is carefully withdrawn and a tape tied around the 
teat tight enough to prevent the escape of the air. The 
same treatment is applied to each quarter. The teats are 
allowed to remain tied. Ordinarily within two or three 
hours the cow will regain consciousness and be able to stand 
on her feet. If the air is absorbed or escapes, so that the 
udder is not tightly distended, the tape should be removed 
and another injection of air made as before. Usually two in- 
jections are sufficient. The udder should remain full of air 
fifteen hours at least, and longer if any sign of the trouble 
remains. The calf of course is not allowed to suck during 
this time. If inflammation of the udder follows, sufficient 
care was not taken in disinfecting the apparatus. 

143. Abortion. This term is used by cattlemen to indi- 
cate the premature birth of the calf. Abortion may be 
accidental or the result of a contagious disease. The non- 
contagious cases may occur as the result of injury, such as 
a. fall, the kick of a horse, or being crowded in a gate or door- 
way. Severe sickness, such as indigestion or bloat, may 
cause the trouble. If a single case occurs, it may be attrib- 
uted to some accidental cause. If a number occur in the 
same herd, it is almost certain that the specific disease known 
as contagious abortion is present. 

This disease causes more loss financially t6 the dairymen of 
the country than any other disease to which cattle are sub- 
ject. As a result of the work of Dr. Bang of Penmark it is 
now definitely known that this trouble is due to a certain 
species of bacteria. The presence of these living organisms 
in many cases, but not in all, results in premature birth of 
the calf. It is thoroughly proved that the disease is con- 



156 DAIRY FARMING 

tagious and may spread through a herd from a single in- 
fected animal brought into the herd. From 50 to 75 per 
cent of the cows in an affected herd often abort. The 
remainder are either naturally immune or carry the calf to 
full time in spite of the disease. The calf is usually born at 
the sixth or seventh month and, at this early stage, always 
dead. After having once aborted many of the cows are 
immune and afterwards carry the calf in a normal manner. 
Others abort twice before becoming immune. Some as the 
result of abortion become sterile or shy breeders. The 
disease is spread either by the male or by the germs from 
an affected animal getting on the feed consumed by another. 

Two methods of testing cows for infection with this dis- 
ease have recently been devised. These methods as yet 
can be carried out only by a skillful operator supplied with 
the facilities of a scientific laboratory. It is probable that 
these methods will be adapted for use by a large number of 
veterinarians. Such a test may make it possible to keep 
herds free from abortion by excluding animals having the 
disease. 

No satisfactory treatment has yet been discovered for 
contagious abortion. The main precaution now is preven- 
tion as far as possible by keeping the disease out of the herd. 
It is not safe to buy an aged bull or a cow from a herd where 
the disease exists. If an abortion occurs, the fetus and after- 
birth should be burned or buried. The aborting cow should 
be isolated and the stall where she stood disinfected with a 
5 per cent solution of carbolic acid. 

144. Tuberculosis, This disease is caused by a certain 
species of bacteria. The bacteria cannot develop from the 
surroundings or conditions of handling, but must come from 
another animal having the disease. The germs that cause 



COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 157 

the disease escape from an infected animal in the slobber 
from the mouth, with the manure, and, sometimes in the 
case of udder infection, with the milk. As a rule a cow does 
not die quickly from tuberculosis. The disease usually pro- 
gresses slowly. The animal may have it for years without 
any indication of ill health. The disease may attack almost 
any organ of the animal's body but is common, as with 
human beings, in the lungs. Animals that have plenty of 
feed and fresh air may sometimes recover. Good ventilation 
and good feed and care are important in control of the 
disease. 

It is impossible to tell by external appearances, except in 
extreme cases, whether the animal is affected or not. For- 
tunately we have in the substance known as tuberculin, an 
agent that is fairly reliable in showing the presence of the 
disease even in the smallest degree. The test is made by 
first taking the temperature of each animal three or four 
times at intervals of two hours. Tuberculin is then injected 
beneath the skin. After eight or nine hours temperature 
readings are again taken and repeated five to eight times 
at two-hour intervals. A rise in temperature suggests that 
the disease may be present, but experience is necessary for 
accurate interpretation of the results. The interdermal 
method, which is also used, consists in injecting the tuber- 
culin in soft skin, usually on the under side of the tail. If 
the disease is present, a swelling appears and remains for 
several days. 

A dairyman accustomed to the use of instruments can 
conduct the test himself after first assisting a competent 
operator. It is safer, however, to have the work done by a 
trained veterinarian in order that no mistakes may be made 
and that the test may be recognized by health officers and 



158 DAIRY FARMING 

prospective buyers. Many states have laws governing the 
use of tuberculin. These laws are often changed, and are 
sometimes far from satisfactory. For these reasons one 
should understand the law before he tests his herd. 

The tubercular organism in cattle is slightly different from 
the human form^ but sometimes the bovine form is found in 
human. beings. It is thought that tuberculosis of the lungs 
is rarely if ever contracted from cattle, but some of the 
cases of tuberculosis in the intestines and glands, especially 
in young children, are thought to be so contracted. 

145. Inflammation of the Udder. This is one of the most 
common troubles with dairy cows. It varies in severity from 
a mild case, when the milk is only slightly stringy for a few 
days, to severe cases, where the udder becomes so swollen 
that no milk can be drawn. It may end with the permanent 
loss of the udder. 

Inflammation of the udder is not the same as the conges- 
tion that occurs in heavy-milking cows just after calving. 
Congestion at this time is to be expected and need not cause 
anxiety, as long as the milk can be drawn from each quarter 
and the milk appears normal. When the udder is inflamed, 
the cow should not receive much grain until the udder softens. 
The ration fed should be laxative in nature and of a light 
character, such as bran. The milk should be drawn several 
times daily and the cow carefully protected from cold and 
exposure. 

Garget is a common name for mild cases of inflammation 
of the udder. Sometimes there are swellings in the udder, 
or the milk may be stringy or lumpy. In many cases no 
special cause can be discovered, although exposure to severe 
weather, lying with the udder on a cold floor, injury by 
bruises, or too heavy grain feeding may bring it about. 



COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 159 

Certain cows at times have it as a chronic condition, giving 
stringy milk at intervals for months or years. Mild cases, 
if not chronic, usually respond readily to treatment. A 
physic should be given at once and the grain ration reduced 
to one-third the usual amount. An ounce of saltpeter per 
day for two or three days is generally beneficial after the 
purgative has begun to work. If the udder is very sensi- 
tive, a milking tube should be used for a few days. 

Occasionally severe cases of inflammation of the udder 
develop. These usually come on suddenl}^ and are most 
likely to affect the heaviest milkers. One or more of the 
quarters of the udder swell and become very hard, while 
the whole gland is decidedly hot and tender and no milk 
can be drawn. Usually a small amount of yellowish watery 
fluid replaces the milk. If the inflammation cannot be re- 
duced within a short time, that part of the udder affected 
will not secrete any milk during that lactation period and 
will probably be permanently lost. In some cases a fibrous 
mass develops in the udder following such an attack, in others 
an abscess may result. 

Treatment must be prompt and thorough. The cow suf- 
fers greatly from the weight of the udder. This should be 
remedied as much as possible by passing a sheet around 
the body to support the udder. Hot water applied for an 
hour or more by packing soft rags around the udder, followed 
by rubbing and kneading is often found beneficial. After 
this is done, the best treatment is probably an application of 
antiphlogistine. This is warmed and applied in a layer about 
one-fourth inch thick leaving the teats protruding so that 
the milk may be drawn. In about twenty-four hours the 
antiphlogistine loosens and may be removed. A second 
application is sometimes advisable. If it is impossible to 



160 DAIRY FARMING 

apply antiphlogistine, the udder may be packed in ice, which 
is replenished as fast as it melts and allowed to remain 
several hours. 

In the beginning of any treatment of this trouble a drench 
should be given containing from 1 to 1| pounds of Epsom 
salts. One ounce of saltpeter is also given in many cases to 
stimulate the action of the kidneys and may be continued 
two or three days. 

146. Scours in Calves. The most common trouble ex- 
perienced in calf raising is indigestion, which shows its pres- 
ence by scours. Care should be taken to distinguish between 
common scours resulting from indigestion, and navel in- 
fection, one symptom of which is scours. 

Navel infection is sometimes called either white scours 
or calf cholera. It is a contagious germ disease which gains 
access to the calf's body through the navel cord soon after 
birth. It appears within one or two days after birth. The 
calf is very sick from the first and nearly always dies. The 
eyes are sunken, and a common symptom, although it is 
not always observed, is the passage of white, foul-smelling 
dung. If one case occurs, others are likely to appear, es- 
pecially if other calves are born in the same stall. Often sev- 
eral cases occur in succession in the same barn. The trouble 
may be avoided by making sure that the calf is dropped in 
a clean stall and that the navel cord is not allowed to come 
in contact with any manure or dirt until the cord is dry. 
If the calf is dropped in the pasture, there is little danger 
unless it is brought at once to the barn. If it is born in a 
barn where previous cases have occurred, the only safe plan 
is to tie up the cord at birth in a clean bandage, having ap- 
plied a mild disinfectant, such as weak creolin or tincture of 
iodine. 



COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 161 

Calves raised by hand should be watched closely for signs 
of indigestion. The main treatment, as pointed out in the 
discussion of calf feeding, lies in prevention. Often the first 
indication of disorder is foul-smelling dung. If this is 
noticed, the ration should be at once cut down to one-half or 
one-third the usual amount. Often light feeding for a few 
times will remove the trouble with no further treatment. 
It is well to add to each pint of milk one teaspoonful of a 
mixture of one-half ounce of formalin in 15 J ounces of water. 
The formalin should be given for two or three days at least. 
After two or three feedings, if the calf improves, the milk 
may be increased to the usual quantity. 

When a severe case of scours occurs, the feed should be at 
once reduced. A drench of three ounces of castor oil in a 
pint of milk may be given with advantage. It is well to 
give the formalin mixture for several days during recovery 
from a severe attack. 

147. Lice. During the winter season especially, cattle 
are often affected with lice. Calves and young cattle are 
most often affected, but older cattle are not exempt, and they 
may suffer badly from this pest. The presence of lice may 
be suspected if the cows are seen rubbing the neck and shoul- 
ders on trees and posts. When they are badly infested, 
their hair usually begins to come out in spots. Several 
substances may be used to kill the lice. Any of the coal tar 
dips and compounds on the market may be employed with 
success. The most satisfactory treatment is kerosene emul- 
sion. To make this, dissolve one-half pound of hard soap 
in one gallon of boiling soft water. As soon as the soap is 
dissolved, add two gallons of kerosene. Mix by pumping 
with a spray pump or by stirring or by other means until a 
thick creamy emulsion is formed from which the oil does 

M 



162 DAIRY FARMING 

not readily separate. Before using, add this mixture to 
19 gallons of water. The emulsion may be applied with a 
spray pump, or with a brush, wetting the entire animal 
thoroughly. The above amount is enough for twenty cows. 

148. Bloat. This trouble comes from the formation of 
an excessive amount of gas in the paunch. It often results 
from pasturing on alfalfa or clover, but may occur with any 
kind of feed. It is known by the excessive swelling of the 
left flank. If relief is not obtained in time, the animal 
may die from suffocation due to the great pressure on the 
lungs. In mild cases driving the animal at a rapid rate 
for some distance may be sufficient. Cold water thrown in 
quantities upon the cow's sides may reduce the pressure. 

The Kentucky Experiment Station recommends for acute 
bloating that a quart of 1| per cent solution of formalin be 
given as a drench followed by placing a wooden block in the 
animal's mouth for a short time.^ 

In case relief cannot be obtained otherwise, the gas must 
be removed without delay. This is best done by the use 
of a trocar. In using this instrument a spot is selected on 
the left side equally distant from the last rib, the hip bone, 
and the backbone. The skin is cut for about an inch, then 
the trocar is thrust into the paunch. The sheath of the tro- 
car is allowed to remain in the opening as long as any gas 
escapes, which may be several hours. It is generally advis- 
able to give a dose of 1 to 1\ pounds of salts after a case of 
bloating. 

149. Cowpox. This trouble is common with dairy cattle. 
It appears as pustules especially on the udder and surround- 
ing parts. The virus used in the vaccination of human 
beings against smallpox is obtained from cows that have had 

1 Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Circular 5. 



COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 163 

the disease. The first indication of the disease is the ap- 
pearance of small pimples on the skin. These at first con- 
tain a watery fluid which later thickens and becomes pus. 
The pustule becomes flattened at the center and about the 
ninth day breaks and the pus escapes. After it has broken, 
a thick dark scale appears, usually with a depression in the 
center. This comes off later, leaving a small pit similar to 
the scars of smallpox. The disease is conta- 
gious to other cattle, but an animal once af- 
flicted with the disease is immune for some 
time at least, and perhaps for life. 

No special treatment is necessary, as the 
animal will soon recover. About all that can 
be done is to apply some disinfectant, such as 
zinc ointment, or a weak solution of some one 
of the coal tar products commonly used on the ^ 

farm as stock dips. The affected animal should Fig. 46. — 
be milked last so that the milker will riot carry a last resort in 
the disease to other cows. After milking, the relieving bloat, 
hands should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. The 
milk from a cow suffering from this disease should not be 
used for human food. 

150. Blackleg. This disease is also known as '' black 
quarter." It attacks calves and young cattle from the age 
of a few weeks up to the age of 2 or even 3 years. It is dis- 
tributed more or less over a large part of this country but 
is largely localized. Certain neighborhoods or farms after 
once becoming infected often remain so for long periods, and 
any young stock exposed are liable to develop the disease. 
It is caused by a bacterium that gets into the animal's body 
from the food or water. This bacterium can survive outside 
the animal's body for long periods, so that the disease may 



164 DAIRY FARMING 

appear even though no cases have been known for a long 
time. Calves in good flesh are the most subject to its at- 
tack. Calves affected with the disease live a few days but 
seldom recover. 

The disease is easily recognized. The calf at first appears 
merely lame and stiff. Swellings will usually be formed on 
some part of the body, and when these are rubbed a peculiar 
crackling sound is noticed resulting from the gas that has 
formed in the tissue. When the calf is examined after 
death the affected quarter will be found to be congested 
with dark blood and almost black in color, which condition 
gives rise to the common name of the disease. It is useless 
to attempt to treat the animals already affected. When 
a case occurs, those not sick should be vaccinated at once. 
There is then little danger that the trouble will spread. 
In localities where the disease is common, vaccination should 
be practiced on all calves, as a preventive, without waiting 
for the disease to appear. The vaccine used for the pur- 
pose may be purchased and applied by the owner himself, 
or a veterinary surgeon may be employed if the owner pre- 
fers. 

151. Sorghum and Kafir Corn Poisoning. Sorghum and 
kafir corn are important forage crops in that part of the 
country bordering on the semiarid. Under certain conditions 
these plants develop a poison, which is frequently the cause of 
losses of stock, especially cattle. The danger occurs when the 
growth of the crop is checked by dry weather and at times in 
second growth sorghum or kafir. The trouble occurs only 
when the animal eats the green plant. The damage usually 
happens when the stock break through the fences and eat the 
green crop in the field, although occasionally cattle are turned 
into such a field by some one who is ignorant of the possible 



COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 165 

danger. Death will sometimes occur within half an hour 
after the food is eaten. As small a quantity as two pounds 
sometimes causes death. 

The Nebraska Experiment Station ^ records a case where 
21 cows out of 32 died within an hour after being turned 
into a field of stunted kafir corn. When these crops are 
put into the silo or made into hay for some reason the dan- 
ger disappears. Little can be done to treat an animal af- 
fected. In fact, as a rule the animal is dead before the 
owner knows it is sick. Prevention, by excluding stock from 
such fields during seasons when the presence of the poison 
is suspected, is the only safe course. 

152. Corn-stalk Disease. In the states of the Middle 
West, where corn is grown in large quantities, the common 
practice is to husk the corn from the standing stalks and 
leave the stalks in the field. Later the cattle are turned 
into the field to gather as much of the stalks and leaves as 
they will utilize. Stalk fields are generally pastured during 
the early part of the winter. Frequent losses of cattle occur 
during the time they are given access to the stalk fields. 
The ailment is known as the corn-stalk disease. It most 
commonly occurs during periods of cold or wet weather and 
always after the stalks have become thoroughly dry. The 
trouble usually occurs during the first few days after the 
cattle are put into the stalk field. 

The disease appears suddenly. The animal afflicted is 
reluctant to move and when forced to do so shows an un- 
steady gait. Later there are indications of severe pain such 
as kicking towards the body, bellowing, and moaning. The 
animal may froth at the mouth and attempt to attack any 
one coming near. Death usually occurs within one or two 

1 Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 77. 



166 DAIRY FARMING 

days. All attempts to find the specific cause of the disease 
have so far failed. It has been proved that smut in corn is 
not the cause. Those who have given the subject most 
attention believe the trouble is the result of acute indiges- 
tion caused by eating too much coarse indigestible food. It 
is possible that under certain conditions some poisonous 
substance is developed in the stalks. 

No satisfactory medical treatment has been found. As 
with many other diseases, attention has to be directed to- 
wards prevention. Cattle should always be watered and well 
fed before being turned into a stalk field for the first time, 
and some laxative food, such as alfalfa or clover hay, should 
be given daily. Plenty of water should be readily accessible. 
The animals should be turned into the field for only a short 
time the first day, gradually lengthening the time each day 
as they become accustomed to the feed. Fortunately this 
trouble does not occur from feeding corn fodder cut and 
shocked in the field, or from corn put in the silo. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Let each student make a list of as many cases of deaths of 
cattle in the community as he can find, giving the cause of death 
and telling whether a calf, cow, steer, or bull. Combine these re- 
ports to find the comparative number of deaths from each disease. 

2. What is the cause of each of the diseases found? How may 
each be controlled ? 

3. Similarly report on as many cases as possible of cows that were 
sold or slaughtered, giving the reason why they were discarded. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

13. Miscellaneous Exercises. If possible make arrangements to 
do the following work with a cow that is not very valuable. A clini- 
cal thermometer, drenching bottle, carbolic acid, teat plugs, and 
milk tube will be required. 



COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 167 

Each student should learn how to perform the following 
operations : 

Take the temperature. 

Take the pulse. 

Count the respiration. 

Give the cow a drench of pure water in order to learn the method. 

Prepare a 2 per cent solution of carbolic acid. 

Insert a teat plug after sterilizing it with the carbolic acid solu- 
tion. 

Insert a milking tube after sterilizing it. 

14. Treatment for Lice. Prepare a kerosene emulsion by the 
direction given on page 161. If possible arrange to use this on a 
herd that needs it. 

COLLATERAL READING 

Milk Fever, Its Simple and Successful Treatment, U. S. Dept. 
Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 206. 

Anthrax with Special Reference to its Suppression, U. S. Dept. 
Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 439. 

Tuberculosis, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletins 351 and 473. 

Practical Method of Disinfecting Stables, U. S. Dept. Agr., 
Farmers' Bulletin 480. 

Texas Fever, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletins 498, 569, and 
603. 

Eradication of the Cattle Tick Necessary for Profitable Dairying 
in the South, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 639. 

Foot and Mouth Disease, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 666. 

Diseases of Cattle, U. S. Dept. Agr. (A 550-page book, cost- 
ing $1.) 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. Ill, 
pp. 122-146, 321-330. 

The Diseases of Animals, N. S. Mayo. 



CHAPTER 8 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 

C. H. ECKLES 

Composition of Milk 

153. Average Composition. Milk is composed of water, 
fat, protein, sugar, and ash or minerals. The milk of all 
species of animals and of every individual within the species 
contains these same constituents, but the proportions are 
subject to wide variations. 

Cow's milk weighs approximately 2.15 pounds per quart. 
(Density is 1.032.) It is not possible to give any single 
statement that will give more than a general idea of its 
composition on account of the wide variations due to the 
influence of breed and other factors. If a quantity of milk 
be taken as representative of the total amount sold for city 
trade or of that sold to butter or cheese factories, it would 
have approximately the following composition : 

Per Cent 

Water 87.3 

Fat 3.7 

Protein 3.5 

Sugar 4.8 

Ash 7 

154. Water. Milk contains on an average about 87.3 
per cent of water. The extreme variations are from about 
83 to 90 per cent. The water in milk serves the same 

168 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



169 



purpose as food as ordinary water. It should not be 
concluded from the high water content that milk has a 
low food value. 

155. Fat. The fat is commercially the most valuable 
part of milk. It is also the most variable in amount. It 
may range from 2.5 to 7.5 per cent and occasionally even 
beyond these limits. The fat exists in the form of minute 




Fig. 47. — Photomicrograph showing fat globules 
in Shorthorn milk. Magnified 400 diameters. 

globules, too small to be seen by the naked eye but readily 
seen under a microscope. It is in a state of suspension, that 
is, the fat globules are floating in the milk. When milk 
stands undisturbed for some time, the fat rises to the top in 
the form of cream. Churning of cream is the uniting of 
these fat globules by mechanical means until they form a 
lump of butter. The main factors influencing the amount 
of fat are : (1) breed, (2) stage of lactation, (3) individuality 



170 DAIRY FARMING 

of the cow, (4) interval between milkings, (5) portion of 
the milking, fore milk or strippings. 

As food, fat serves as fuel to supply heat for the body, and 
energy to keep up the body functions. The surplus is stored 
as body fat, which serves as a storehouse of reserve material 
for future use. Fat does not make growth of bone or muscle. 

156. Protein. The protein varies in amount from 2.5 to 
4.2 per cent in extreme cases. Mixed milk usually varies 
between 3 and 3.5 per cent. Protein contains nitrogen 
combined with hydrogen, carbon, and small quantities of 
phosphorus and sulphur. The proteins in milk are a mix- 
ture of several kinds. Two only need to be mentioned since 
they make up nearly the entire amount. These are casein 
and albumin. The casein is that part of milk which curdles 
on souring. It also gives the white color to the milk. In 
cheese making rennet is added to the milk to coagulate the 
casein, which takes most of the fat with it in a mechanical 
way. The albumin is present to the amount of about 0.7 
per cent. It is much like the albumin of an egg or that in 
blood. It is coagulated by heating and may be seen as a 
scum on the surface of boiled milk. It goes into the whey 
in cheese making. 

The protein may be said to be the most valuable food con- 
stituent of milk. It supplies material necessary for the growth 
of bone and muscle and to keep up the repair of the body. 
Part of the casein is in a semi-dissolved condition. A portion 
of the undissolved part, and insoluble impurities that were 
in the milk, make up the well-known separator slime. 

157. Sugar. The form of sugar known as lactose is found 
only in milk. Its chemical composition is practically the same 
as that of cane sugar, although it is less sweet in taste. It 
has the same food value as ordinary sugar and like it fur- 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 171 

nishes a source of heat and energy for the body. When acted 
upon by certain bacteria, a portion of it changes into lactic 
acid and makes the milk sour. The lactic acid unites with 
the lime in the casein. This results in precipitating the casein 
as the curd of sour milk. 

When milk is used for butter making, the greater part of 
the sugar goes with the skim-milk, another part with the 
buttermilk, and only a very minute quantity into the but- 
ter. In cheese making a very small amount goes into the 
cheese and the remainder into the whey. 

158. Mineral Matter or Ash. This is the portion remain- 
ing if milk solids are burned. It varies little in quantity 
or composition. It seldom falls below 0.6 or exceeds 0.85 per 
cent. It is composed largely of potassium, calcium, and 
phosphorus, with smaller quantities of several other ele- 
ments, including iron and sodium. When milk is used as food, 
the ash serves to furnish material for the bones and to supply 
other necessary demands for mineral matter in the body. 

159. Color of Milk. The white color is due to some 
extent to the fat, but mostly to the casein. The yellowish 
color observed to some extent in milk is associated with the 
fat. This yellow coloring matter is carotin. Its source is 
the plants used by the cow for food.^ This pigment is 
found along with the green pigment in growing plants. It 
passes from the stomach through the circulation of the cow 
and into the milk-fat in an unchanged condition. When the 
feed is low in coloring matter, as for example dry hay and 
grain, the color of the milk-fat is reduced, and the butter 
may appear almost white as it often does in winter. The 
yellow coloring matter has no food value, neither does it 
give any taste to the milk or fat. The preference for yellow 

1 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Research Bulletins 9, 10, 11, 12. 



172 



DAIRY FARMING 



butter and for cream of a somewhat yellow color is based 
entirely upon looks. 

Factors Influencing Composition 
160. The Kind of Animal. As already stated, the milk 
of all species contains the same constituents but in different 
proportions. Table 19 gives the average composition of 
human milk and of that from several domestic animals. 

Table 19. — Composition of Milk of Different Animals 



Species 


Dry 

Matter 


Fat 


Protein 


Sugar 


Ash 


Human .... 


11.2 


3.1 


2.0 


6.3 


0.2 


Cow . . 






12.7 


3.7 


3.5 


4.8 


0.7 


Goat . 






14.5 


4.8 


5.0 


4.0 


0.7 


Sheep 






16.3 


6.1 


5.1 


4.2 


0.9 


Mare . . 






9.3 


1.2 


2.0 


5.7 


0.4 


Sow . . 






15.9 


4.5 


7.2 


3.1 


1.1 


Camel . 






11.8 


2.5 


3.6 


5.0 


0.7 


Reindeer 






28.8 


14.5 


^.8 


3.0 


1.5 


Bitch . 






23.0 


9.3 


9.7 


3.1 


0.9 


Cat . . 






18.4 


3.9 


9.1 


4.9 


0.5 



The composition of human milk is of great importance 
in connection with the problem of infant feeding. Within 
recent years it has become more and more the practice to 
modify cow's milk when used for infant food so that it ap- 
proaches the normal milk of the human mother. The most 
marked difference in composition between human and cow's 
milk is the decidedly lower protein and higher sugar content 
in the former. 

The general plan followed in modifying cow's milk for 
infant feeding is to add sufficient water to reduce the pro- 
tein content to that found in human milk. Cream is then 
added to restore the fat content to from 2.5 to 3.5 per 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



173 



cent and sufficient sugar, usually milk sugar, to raise the 
content of this constituent to that found in human milk. 

A knowledge of the composition of milk produced by 
the common domestic animals will be found of value at 
times. For example, if it becomes necessary to raise a colt 
by hand, a study of the table giving the composition of mare's 
milk will show clearly that even average cow's milk should 
be diluted with water before being used for this purpose. 
Cane sugar is often added. 

The exceedingly rapid growth of small animals is ex- 
plained by the very rich milk that small species always 
produce. As a general rule the larger the species, the slower 
the growth of the young, and the smaller the amount of solids 
in the milk. Animals living in arctic regions or in the ocean 
are exceptions. These conditions require a large amount of 
fat for fuel to keep the young animal warm. This interesting 
fact is illustrated by the composition of the reindeer's milk 
and also by that of certain marine animals such as the walrus 
and the porpoise which secrete the richest milk known. 

161. Breed. The milk from different breeds of cows 
differs in composition. Table 20 gives a summary of all 
the pubhshed records of American Experiment Stations on 
this subject up to 1913 : 

Table 20. — Composition of Milk by Breeds ^ 



Breed 


Total Solids 


Fat 


Protein 


Sugar 


Jersey 

Guernf^ey .... 
Ayrshire .... 
Holstein .... 


14.70 
14.49 
12.72 
12.00 


5.14 
4.98 
3.85 
3.45 


3.80 
3.84 
3.34 
3.15 


5.04 
4.98 
5.02 
4.65 



1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 156. 



174 DAIRY FARMING 

It will be noted that the main variation is in the fat, al- 
though the protein shows sufficient variation to be of impor- 
tance. Sugar varies but shghtly, and the ash practically 
none. The breed of the cow also has a marked influence 
upon the size of the fat globules. Those of the Jerseys and 
Guernseys are much larger than those of the Holsteins. The 
larger fat globules in Jersey milk result in quicker and more 
complete separation of the cream by gravity ; also in a slight 
difference in the ease of churning. The breed of the cow 
Ukewise has a marked influence upon the color of milk and 
especially upon the color of the butter. In amount of color 
the Guernsey ranks first, followed by the Jersey, Short- 
horn, Ayrshire, and Holstein in the order named. ^ There 
is no basis for the common claim that certain breeds pro- 
duce milk or butter of a better flavor than others. Out- 
side the possible variation in color, the most expert judge 
cannot distinguish the product of one breed from that of 
another when other conditions are the same. 

162. Stage of Lactation. The stage of lactation stands 
second only to the breed in importance as a factor influencing 
the composition of milk. The amount of the different con- 
stituents and also the nature of the fat itself is influenced in 
this way. The most marked effect is upon the amount of 
protein and fat. 

The figures in Table 21 obtained by the author show the 
average for eleven cows representing three breeds which were 
kept on a uniform ration for an entire lactation period to elim- 
inate changes due to feed. A decided increase in the amount 
of fat and protein is shown, but Uttle change in the sugar 
content. 

The stage of lactation also has a marked effect upon 
the size of fat globules. After the cow has been in milk 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



175 



ten or eleven months, the fat globules average about one- 
third the size of those in the milk when the cow is fresh. 
This is one reason why difficulty is often experienced in churn- 
ing the cream from cows that have been in milk a long time. 

Table 21. — Effect of Stage of Lactation on Composition 

OF Milk 



Four Weeks 
Periods 


Protein 


Fat 


Sugar 


Weeks 


Per Cent 


Per Cent 


Per Cent 


1-4 


3.25 


4.00 


4.87 


5-8 


3.06 


3.85 


4.84 


9-12 


3.06 


3.79 


4.94 


13-16 


3.13 


3.77 


4.82 


17-20 


3.25 


3.82 


4.80 


21-24 


3.25 


3.79 


4.75 


25-28 


3.32 


3.83 


4.88 


29-32 


3.32 


3.85 


4.83 


33-36 


3.57 


3.97 


4.62 


37-40 


3.83 


4.11 


4.55 


41-44 


3.89 


4.22 


4.74 


45-48 


4.08 


4.54 


4.91 


49-52 


4.34 


4.66 


4.50, 



163. Individuality of the Animal. The writer has kept 
complete records for one year or more for 76 Jersey cows. 
The lowest average fat content for a year was 4.47 and the 
highest 7.00 per cent. Among 40 Holsteins the lowest was 
2.6 and the highest 3.81. The records of 25 Shorthorns 
show a variation from 3.59 to 4.31 in the averages for one 
year. These give an idea of the extent of variation within 
a breed. The variation in the other constituents is always 
less than the variation in fat. 

164. Interval between Milkings. If a cow is milked twice 
daily at equal intervals, the quantity and quality of milk 

1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 155. 



176 DAIRY FARMING 

are usually about the same at each milking. If the intervals 
are not equal, the larger yield of milk and a lower percentage 
of fat follow the longer interval. When the milking is done 
three times or more daily, the variation in fat content is 
generally considerable, even though the intervals between 
milking are equal. As a rule, the milk drawn near the noon 
hour has the highest fat content. Where the composition 
is varied by unequal intervals, the variation is confined 
mostly to the fat. 

165. Fore Milk and Strippings. The first milk drawn from 
the cow contains a low percentage of fat, while the last is sev- 
eral times richer in this constituent. The first milk as a rule 
contains from 1.5 to 2.5 per cent, while the strippings range 
from 5 to 10 per cent. The other constituents of the milk 
are practically the same in all parts of the milking. Numer- 
ous variations occur from day to day that cannot be ex- 
plained by any of the factors described. A single sample of 
milk from a cow may be entirely misleading. 

166. Effect of Feed. The error is often made of assuming 
that the richness of milk varies with the feed. While it 
is possible under certain conditions to make a variation of 
possibly 0.2 to 0.4 per cent by giving certain feeds, it is 
only under conditions so abnormal that it is of scientific 
interest only and has no practical bearing. As far as the 
ordinary practice is concerned, the feed has no influence 
upon the richness of the milk. If a certain cow averages 
3.4 per cent fat for a year, no one knows how to feed her to 
make her milk average 4.0 per cent for the following year. 
The richness of a cow's milk is fixed by heredity and cannot be 
permanently changed by any means. It is a well-known fact, 
however, that a cow in a high state of flesh at time of calving 
gives richer milk for a short time than does one thin in flesh. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



ni 



Market Milk 

167. Sanitary Milk. Milk sometimes acts as the carrier 
of human disease germs. The danger that such germs will 
get into milk during handling is much greater than is the 
danger of the transmission of any disease directly from the 
cows. While the danger of carrying disease is great, it is 





Fig. 48. — A small top milk pail helps to prevent contamination during 
milking. Strainers and cloth over the opening are of little value. Some 
of the most sanitary dairies use the types illustrated. 

certain that dirty or partly spoiled milk is even more serious 
and is responsible for much sickness and many deaths among 
children. 

The production of market milk that is reasonably safe 
for food, is not difficult and need not involve heavy ex- 
pense, except that more intelligence is necessary for its 
production and greater intelligence demands higher wages. 
It is certain that if the public wants good clean milk the 



178 DAIRY FARMING 

price must be somewhat higher than it has been in the past. 
The first requirement is that the cows must be healthy. 
The milk from a cow suffering from sickness of any kind, 
including garget in the udder, should not be used. The 
milkers should be in good health and should take special 
pains that no possible chance is given for the germs of 
typhoid fever to get into the milk. Care should be taken 
that contaminated water is not used for washing the 
utensils. 

Sanitary milk means primarily clean milk. In fact, the 
requirements for producing sanitary milk can be described 
in two words. The first is cleanliness, and the second 

is coldness. The source 
of most of the dirt that 
finds its way into milk is 
filth from the cow's body. 
A dirty cow invariably 
„ ,^ ,,.,, ., , U.J means dirty milk. The 

Fig. 49. — Milk pails and cans should "^ 

have all seams filled with solder as in h. stable should be SO COn- 
Utensils with seams like a are very diffi- . . ,.i ,•-• mi 

cult to keep clean. structed that it IS possible 

to keep the cow clean. A 
cow should be brushed daily to keep the loose dirt off the 
body. The stable and yard should, of course, be kept in 
a good condition of cleanliness. The milker should wear 
clean clothes and should milk with dry hands. 

Next to cleanliness of the cow stands cleanliness of the 
pails, strainers, and other utensils. These should be first 
cleaned with a brush, using warm water and some washing 
powder. Special attention should be given to the seams. 
After being thoroughly cleaned, they should be scalded with 
boiling water or better heated in steam when this is avail- 
able. After being scalded, they should be placed where 





MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



179 



they will dry quickly. It is well to set them in the sun dur- 
ing the day. 

Coldness is as important as cleanliness. Keeping milk 
clean keeps most of the bacteria out. Cooling it prevents 
the growth of those that 
do get in. Effective cool- 
ing means bringing the 
temperature of the milk, 
not later than an hour 
after milking, and prefer- 
ably sooner, to a temper- 
ature of 50° F., or lower. 

In an experiment by the author a sample of fresh milk 
was divided into two parts, one of which was cooled at once 
to 50° F., while the other was placed at 75° F., with the fol- 
lowing results : 




Fig. 50. — Brush for cleaning milk utensils. 
The brush is much better than a cloth. 



Held at 50° F. 



Held at 75" F. 



Bacteria per e.c. in fresh milk . 
Bacteria per c.c. after 12 hours 
Bacteria per c.c. after 24 hours 
Age of milk at first souring . . 



21,000 
20,000 
32,000 
3 days 



21,000 

110,000 

10,450,000 

28 hours 



Putting warm milk in an ordinary ice box is not an effec- 
tive method of cooling, as can be readily determined by 
testing it with a thermometer. The importance of the 
statement regarding the necessity for sudden cooling and 
the inefficiency of cold air as a means of cooling is illus- 
trated in a striking way by an experiment conducted by 
students under the supervision of the author. Sixteen gal- 
lons of fresh warm milk was received from the barn, mixed, 
and then placed in two cans. Plate cultures were made 



180 



DAIRY FARMING 



a 



from the milk, according to the method used in bacterio- 
logical laboratories, to determine the number of bacteria 

present. There were 
found to be 13,000 bac- 
teria per cubic centimeter 
in the fresh milk. This 
is a low count, showing 
that the milk had been 
taken under excellent 
sanitary conditions. One 
can was cooled at once 
to 50° by placing it in ice 
water and stirring. The 
other can still showed a 
temperature of 90°. Both 
were now put in a room 
of 50°, which is a typical 
The results are tabu- 







Fig. 51. — Influence of temperature 
on the growth of bacteria, a repre- 
sents one original bacterium ; b, the de- 
scendants of one bacterium in milk kept 
24 hours at 50° F. ; c represents the 
number of descendants when milk is not 
cooled. 



cooled with ice to a temperature 
temperature for a good ice box 
lated below : 





Cooled Milk 


Uncooled 
Milk 


Number of bacteria at beginning . . 


13,000 


13,000 


Temperature of room 


50° 


50° 


Temperature of milk at beginning . 


50° 


90° 


Temperature after 12 hours .... 


50° 


70° 


Temperature after 24 hours .... 


50° 


58° 


Temperature after 36 hours .... 


50° 


51° 


Number of bacteria after 36 hours 


15,000 


52,500,000 



The bacteria counts were made in both samples at the 
end of 36 hours. The cooled sample contained 15,000 bac- 
teria per cubic centimeter, and the uncooled the enormous 
number of 52,500,000 in the same quantity. The sample 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 181 

cooled slowly soured within 40 hours, while the other re- 
mained perfectly sweet for five days. 

If a large quantity of milk is handled, it should be cooled 
by means of a water cooler, many styles of which may be 
purchased at reasonable prices. The next best plan is to set 
the cans in ice water and stir the milk frequently. 

The general subject of milk sanitation may be summarized 
in the following statements : 

1. Use only healthy cows. 

2. Milk should not be handled by any one suffering from 
a contagious disease or associated with a person so affected. 

3. The cow's body should be kept free from manure. 

4. The milker should have clean clothes and should milk 
with dry hands. 

5. The utensils must be properly washed and sterilized. 

6. The milk must be thoroughly cooled immediately and 
kept cold until consumed. 

168. Certified Milk. This name is applied to milk pro- 
duced according to a set of rules prepared by a medical milk 
commission. Such organizations have no relation to either 
state or city inspection. Representatives of the association 
make chemical analyses and bacteria counts of the milk at 
frequent intervals. They also examine the sanitary condi- 
tions of the premises where the milk is produced and the 
health of the cattle and of the milkers at regular intervals. 

If all rules are complied with and the number of bacteria 
is below the maximum nuniber fixed by the rules, the com- 
mission certifies to the condition of the milk and allows the 
dairyman to sell it with its approval. The rules are very 
strict, requiring great cleanliness in every detail. As a 
result certified milk means the highest possible quality from 
a sanitary standpoint. Such milk usually retails at about 



182 



DAIRY FARMING 



15 cents per quart, and the producer receives possibly 8 cents 
at the farm. At present only a very small amount of milk 
is produced under these conditions, as the market is limited. 



^ 


[ 




~ -"1 




fiiiiiii(giiiiiWi»iiS 










^l^mpe^^^^n 


i 1 




■■jp.^ 


m 






vl 








J 




Fig. 52. — Practical milk coolers for farm use. The one on the left is 
more efficient, but more expensive. Cold water, preferably ice water, is 
used for cooling. 

It is only practicable to conduct such a business where a large 
city market is easy of access and when suitable arrangements 
can be made to market the product. 

Butter Making on the Farm 

169. Butter Making on the Farm. Although the creamery 
has become a factor of great importance in the dairy develop- 
ment of the country, still according to the last census, 994 
million pounds of butter per year, or 61 per cent of the total, 
was made on farms. The greater part of this was produced 
on farms where fewer than ten cows were kept. The quality 
of farm-made butter varies from the poorest to the best. 
The average quality, however, is far below that made in the 
creameries. This is due largely to the fact that little at- 
tention is given to having proper utensils and facilities, on 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



183 



account of the small amount of cream available on most 
farms. Lack of interest and of knowledge as to the proper 
methods also affects the quality of the product. When proper 
facilities are provided and the right methods are followed, 
the quality of butter made on the farm may easily be su- 
perior to that made in the average creamery. To do this it 
is necessary to have suffi- 
cient cream to make it 
possible to churn at least 
twice and preferably 
three times each week. 

170. Facilities Needed. 
It is very desirable, but 
of course not absolutely 
necessary, to have a sep- 
arate room arranged for 
butter making. Some- 
times a basement room, if 
it is well ventilated and lighted, can be utilized with advan- 
tage. A concrete floor provided with a drain saves a great 
deal of labor in cleaning apparatus. Some means of cooling, 
either ice or an abundance of very cold water, is indispensable. 

171. What is Good Butter. Butter that has the qualities 
which make it satisfactory to the consumer alv/ays sells 
readily. While there is some variation in individual taste, 
the general market demands the same quality everywhere. 
The following is the common score card for judging butter. 




Fig. 53. — A good milk house, an important 
part of the equipment on a dairy farm. 



Flavor 
Body . 
Color . 
Salt . 
Package 



45 
25 
15 
10 
5 

100 



184 DAIRY FARMING 

172. Flavor. The proper flavor is hard to describe, but 
may be said to be a pure butter taste and odor. It should 
be entirely free from any other taste, such as might be de- 
scribed as rancid, stale, or strong. The flavor of the butter, 
whether it be good or bad, in at least nine cases out of ten, 
is produced during the souring, or ripening, of the cream. 
There are a few exceptions to this rule. A few feeds, such 
as onions, turnips, or new rye pasture, will give a taste to 
butter. In a few cases, butter made from the milk of a cow 
near the end of her milking period, has a shghtly objection- 
able taste. 

173. Body, Color, and Salt. Body, color, salt, and pack- 
age may be said to depend upon mechanical conditions. 
They are entirely under the control of the butter maker, pro- 
vided suitable facilities are at hand. Faults in these quali- 
ties are not to be attributed to the feed, breed, or season of 
the year. 

The body should be waxy and firm, but not brittle or 
salvy. It should not stick to the knife when cut, neither 
should it crumble. Proper body results from having the 
churning temperature right, stopping the churning at the 
right stage, and working the butter the proper amount. 

The color should be that of butter produced by cows on 
pasture. During the season when dry feed is used, a suffi- 
cient amount of vegetable coloring should be added to the 
cream to give the proper shade of yellow. The most com- 
mon defects in color are having it too high or too low, or 
having a streaky or uneven color known as mottles. The 
latter condition is due to uneven distribution of the salt, a 
result of insufficient working. 

The salt should be sufficient so that a person eating the 
butter does not notice either a deficiency or an excess. In 



MILK AND Its PRODUCTS 



185 



addition to too heavy or too light salting, the most common 
fault is gritty or undissolved salt. 

The amount of water left in butter is somewhat variable. 
The usual rule is to estimate that a given number of pounds 
of butter-fat will give one-sixth more pounds of butter. 

174. Separation of Cream. In certain localities it is the 
practice to churn the whole milk, but this results in an 
unnecessary loss of butter-fat in the buttermilk. Until 
recent years cream has 
been secured entirely by 
allowing it to rise to the 
top of the milk. Since 
the introduction of the 
cream separator, about 
1885, the separator 
method has become more 
and more general. 

The most efficient 
gravity method consists 
in using a narrow deep 
can set in ice water or 
very cold spring or well 
water, and skimming the 
cream at the end of 12 or 
15 hours. A widely used 
but very inefficient way 
of securing cream is the 
shallow-pan system, 

which consists in placing the milk in pans and crocks not 
over four inches deep and keeping it at a moderate temper- 
ature. The cream is then skimmed from the surface at 
the end of 24 or 36 hours. By use of the deep-setting 




Fig. 54. — For butter making purposes 
four cows with a cream separator are equal 
to five when shallow pans are used to raise 
the cream. 



186 



DAIRY FARMING 




method it is possible to recover about 90 per cent of the 
cream. By the shallow-pan method from 75 to 80 per 
cent is recovered. 

The centrifugal cream separator is now practical where 
five or more cows are kept although it is often used for even 
a smaller number. The separator makes it possible to re- 
cover about 98 per cent of the butter-fat and to obtain the 
cream in a condition that makes it possible 
to produce the highest grade of butter. It 
also results in a considerable saving of labor, 
and the skim-milk is in the best possible con- 
dition for feeding to calves. 

175. Ripening of Cream. This subject 
requires considerable attention since the mar- 
ket value of the butter is largely controlled 
by the cream ripening. Cream should not 
be held too long. When churned, it should 
have a pure, sharp, sour taste with no ob- 
jectionable taste, such as bitter, rancid, or 
stale. Cream ripening is due to the development of bacteria. 
Butter factories use a starter to help control the souring, 
but this is not generally practical for the small farm, unless 
considerable cream is handled. The proper ripening of the 
cream is controlled by two things : first, by observing proper 
cleanliness in every detail of milking, separating, and hand- 
ling the cream ; second, by proper control of the temperature 
of the cream during the ripening process. 

The following statement is based upon the assumption that 
churning will be done two or three times weekly and not 
daily. The best procedure under these conditions is to 
keep the cream from the first milking at a temperature of 
70° but not colder. This can be done by setting the can in 



Fig. 55. — Can 
used for raising 
cream by deep- 
setting system. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



187 



'n 



well water or standing it in a room at ordinary temperature. 
The cream from the next milking is added to this without 
cooling. If by the time the cream from the third milking is 
added, the cream in the can tastes sour, the entire lot should 
be placed in cold water or a cold place where it will cool to 
a temperature of between 50° and 60°. It should be kept 
at this temperature until churned. The 
fresh cream as separated is added to the 
sour until within about twelve hours of 
churning, after which no more is added in 
order that the cream may be kept cool 
until churning time. 

176. Temperature for Churning. No 
definite temperature can be given covering 
all conditions. The best rule is to use 
such temperature as is necessary to get 
the cream to churn within 30 to 45 min- 
utes. Quicker churning means soft butter 

or too much loss in the buttermilk, dairy thermometers. 

Longer churning is of no advantage. A thermometer should 

^ always be at hand 

When cows are on pasture, a temperature where milk is cooled 
of from 52° to 56° F. is usually found best, ^^ ^^^^^ ^ 
while under dry-feed conditions 58° to 64° F. is more suitable. 
A thermometer should always be used in bringing the 
cream to the proper churning temperature. Guessing at the 
temperature often means poor quality of butter and much 
waste of time. The churn should be not over one-third full, 
and the cream should have about 25 to 30 per cent of fat 
for the best results. Difficulty in churning is generally to 
be attributed to having the temperature too low, the cream 
too thin, or the churn too full. At times trouble that cannot 
be attributed to these causes is experienced. This occurs 



188 



DAIRY FARMING 




when the cream is from cows far advanced in the stage of 
lactation and generally during the season when dry feeds 

are fed exclusively. Under 
these conditions the fat 
itself is hard, the fat 
globules small, and the 
amount of casein in the 
milk large. All these con- 
ditions combine to make 
churning difficult. If a 
cream separator is in use, 
the trouble may be partly 
removed by mixing the 
cream while still sweet 
with three or four times 
its volume of warm water 
Fig. 57. — The most widely used, and and running this mixture 

most satisfactory churn for farm use. 

through the separator. 
This affects the flavor of the butter somewhat, but makes 
the churning easier by removing 
part of the casein. 

177. Churns and Churning. 
For farm use nothing is better 
than the ordinary barrel churn 
without any inside fixtures. 
Large farm dairies can advanta- 
geously use a small-sized com- 
bined churn and worker. The 
cream should be strained into the 
churn through a wire or hair fig. 58. — Combined churn 
strainer to remove particles of ^^^ ^^"t^ '7^^^^' adapted for 

'■ use on the farm where large 

curd, which if not removed show amounts of butter are made. 




MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



189 



as white specks in the butter. If butter color is used, it 
should be added to the cream in the churn. The churn 
should be stopped when the butter granules are about the 
size of kernels of corn, or a little smaller in thin cream. 

The buttermilk is drained off through a strainer. The 
butter is next washed to remove the remainder of the but- 
termilk, by adding about as much water as there was 




Fig. 59. — Butter in proper condition to stop churning. 



buttermilk. This should be at a temperature of 50° to 
56° F. 

178. Salting and Working. After washing, the butter is 
placed on the worker and the salt distributed over it. 
The worker and the ladles used are previously put to soak in 
hot water, then thoroughly cooled in cold water before using, 
to prevent the butter from sticking to them. The amount of 
salt may vary some with the market, but usually one ounce 
per pound of butter is the amount preferred. The butter 



190 



DAIRY FARMING 



is next worked to distribute the salt and to make the butter 
into a compact mass. If there is trouble in getting the 
salt dissolved, the butter may be allowed to stand a few 
hours in a cool place after the working is partly done. A 
second working is then given. The working should be done 
slowly and mostly by pressure rather than by sliding the 
ladle or working utensil over the butter. The working should 
stop when the salt is all dissolved and the body of the butter 
compact and waxy. Observation of the condition of the 
butter and of the time required is the best way to learn the 
proper stage at which to stop working. Overworking makes 
the butter sticky and soft in texture, underworking results 
in mottled butter. 

179. Package. When butter is placed on the market, 
the package is of great importance. It should be neat 

and attractive and of 
proper size. The rec- 
tangular one-pound 
prints meet with the 
most favor every- 
where. They should 
be wrapped in good 
parchment paper, 
which may be pur- 
chased in the proper 
size, 8 X 11 inches, at 
very low cost. When butter is shipped or handled in quan- 
tities, it is also well to use a paraffined paper box over the 
parchment paper, known as a carton, which protects the 
butter. To secure and retain a good retail trade requires 
a uniformly high quality of butter and a constant supply 
during the year. 




Fig. 60. — A hand butter worker that gives 
good results when butter is made on the 
farm. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



191 




Factory Products 

180. Creameries. This name is commonly applied to 

factories manufacturing butter on a large scale and from 

milk supplied by several or many herds. The amount of 

butter made on farms 

decreased 7 per cent in 

the 10 years 1899-1909, 

but the amount made 

in factories increased 49 

per cent. The great 

advantages of the fac- 
tory system are the 

saving in labor and the 

higher price obtained 

for the product. 

In some places the 

milk is taken from the farm to the creamery for separation. 

This is known as a whole-milk creamery. In others the 
farmers separate the cream at home with 
small separators and deliver the cream to 
the factory. Some creameries are owned 
by the farmers and operated on a coop- 
erative basis, while others are owned by 
individuals or companies. 

Many centralizer creameries have re- 
cently originated in the Central and 
Western States. Such creameries are 
located in cities where shipping facilities 

are good, instead of in a cream-producing neighborhood. 

Cream is purchased by local agents or shipped direct to the 

company by the producer. Shipments are at times made as 



Fig. 61. — A hand butter worker. Where 
butter is made in lots of five pounds or more 
a worker should be used. 




Fig. 62. — Good 
butter ladles. Butter 
should not be touched 
with the hands. 



192 



DAIRY FARMING 




far as 400 miles, but generally within a 50-mile radius. Some 
of these factories have the capacity of forty average-sized 
local creameries. The cream received is usually sour and 
too old for the best results in butter making. However, by 

skillful methods of handling, in 
the way of pasteurizing and neu- 
tralizing the cream with lime 
water, it is possible to make a fair 
grade of butter. This type of 
creamery is most common where 
the producers of cream are widely 
scattered so that a local creamery 
cannot obtain sufficient raw ma- 
terial. Under these conditions the 
Fig. 63. — Butter print. The centralizer Creamery serves a useful 

rectangular print sells best. purpose, but where the SUpply of 

cream is sufficient a local factory is to be recommended. 

181. Cheese Making. This important industry is carried 
on most extensively in Wisconsin and in New York. In 
1909 these two states produced over 79 per cent of the total 
product in this country. The milk of about 850,000 cows 
is used for this purpose in the United States and the value 
of the product is nearly 50 million dollars annually. Only 
about 3 per cent of the cheese is made on farms. Milk for 
cheese making must be well cared for. This requires a fairly 
liberal supply of milk within a small area. On the average 10 
pounds of milk are required for 1 pound of cheese. Common 
American Cheddar, which is the most common kind, contains 
about one-third water, one-third fat, and one-third casein. 

In the process of cheese making the milk is coagulated while 
it is in a perfectly sweet condition by the addition of rennet 
extract. Rennet is a substance obtained from the wall of 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 193 

the stomach of calves that have been slaughtered for veal. 
It is secreted by glands in the lining of the stomach in all 
young animals that live on a milk diet. The casein as it is 
coagulated by the rennet incloses the fat with it and forms 
curd. This curd is cut into small pieces, and the water 
gradually expelled by careful stirring and heating. When 
the proper stage is reached, the curd is put into a press and 
sufficient pressure is applied to cause it to unite into a solid 
mass. When the pressing is completed, the cheese is put away 
for ripening. Newly made cheese is not good to eat. It 
lacks flavor as well as digestibility. It is kept for a period 
of from, six weeks to six months for curing and ripening. 

The temperature of the curing room must be carefully 
controlled, as too much heat will injure the quality of the 
cheese. The difficulty of proper control of the ripening is 
the most serious objection to making cheese on the farm, 
and the greatest difficulty to be overcome in operating a 
factory in a climate subject to great extremes of heat. Dur- 
ing the ripening, the protein largely changes from an insoluble 
to a soluble form and in this way becomes much more digesti- 
ble. The typical flavor is developed at the same time. 

182. Condensed Milk. The process of condensing milk 
was invented by Borden in 1856. For the year 1909 the 
value of condensed milk in the United States was nearly 34 
million dollars. The process consists in removing a portion 
of the water from the milk by heating it in a partial vacuum. 
The milk used must be fresh and in good condition. The 
milk is condensed until 2 J parts of the fresh milk make 1 
part of the condensed. Two classes of condensed milk are 
commonly made. One is known as sweetened, since cane 
sugar is added until the finished product contains 40 per 
cent sugar. Condensed milk of this class is preserved 
o 



194 DAISY FARMING 

chiefly by the large amount of sugar present. The other 
class is the unsweetened. Nothing is added to the milk. 
The preservation depends upon heating the product after 
it is in cans in a steam oven under pressure until it is 
completely sterilized. Several grades of this class are made. 
A condensed milk factory can only be operated where a large 
supply of perfectly fresh milk can be obtained. The con- 
densary is usually a good market for milk, but the farmer 
supplying the milk has the same trouble raising his calves 
as in the case where whole milk is sold in any other form. 

183. Milk Flour. A few factories make powdered milk, 
or milk flour. For this a part of the fat is removed, and 
the milk is dried to make a fine white powder that keeps 
well. When water is added, the powder dissolves. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Which is heavier, cream or skim-milk ? 

2. What purpose does each of the constituents of milk serve 
when used as food? Which is the most important constituent? 

3. Compare the amount of fat in Holstein milk with the amount 
in Jersey milk when the latter is considered as 100 per cent. Com- 
pare the protein in the same way. 

4. Why is the percentage of fat not an accurate measure of the 
value of milk as food? 

5. Is it possible to increase the percentage of fat in milk by 
changing the feed? 

6. Is the color of milk a sure indication of the percentage of 
butter-fat contained? 

7. Where does each constituent of the milk go when milk is 
used for butter making? For cheese making? 

8. What reasons are there for stripping a cow? 

9. What are the legal standards of your state for milk and 
butter ? Some of this information is given on page 297. What are 
the restrictions on the sale of oleomargarine? 

10. What principle of physics is the basis for the operation of 
the cream separator and of the Babcock milk test? 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



195 



11. How many cows would be required where the shallow-pan 
system is used, to supply as much cream as would be secured from 6 
cows when the centrifugal separator is used? 

12. Why is butter yellow in summer, and much lighter in color 
in winter? 

13. What is a farrow cow? Why is cream from her milk likely 
to be hard to churn? 

14. What is the leading dairy product in your region? 

15. Is more or less of the butter in your region made in factories 
than formerly ? 

16. What butter or cheese factories are there in the region? 

17. What dairy products are sold in your local stores ? Where 
do they come from ? 

18. The following table gives results for 1909. Using data given 
in this chapter, fill in the blanks. 





Butter 


\_/Hfj£iSJE} 


Condensed Milk 




Pounds 
Produced 


Butter- 
fat 
Re- 
quired 


Pounds 
of 
Milk 
Re- 
quired 


Pounds 
Produced 


Pounds 
Milk 
Re- 
quired 


Pounds 
Produced 


Pounds 
Milk 
Re- 
quired 


Made on farms 
Made in fac- 
tories . . 


994,650,610 
624,764,653 






9,405,864 
311,126,317 




494,796,544 




Total . . . 


1,619,415,263 






320,532,181 




494,796,544 





LABORATORY EXERCISES 



COMPOSITION OF MILK 

15. Butter-fat. Examine some milk under the microscope, using 
preferably a one-sixth objective, and make drawings of the fat 
globules showing the variations in size. 

16. Casein of Milk. This part of milk is precipitated by dilute 
acids. Place 10 c.c. of skim-milk in a 200 c.c. beaker and add 90 
c.c. of water at a temperature of 100° F, Immediately add 1.5 c.c. 
of a 10 per cent solution of acetic acid. Let it stand 20 minutes 
with occasional stirring. Filter, using ordinary filter paper, saving 
the filtrate in another beaker. The residue on the paper is the casein. 
The albumin, sugar, and ash are in the filtrate. 

17. Albumin of Milk. Heat the filtrate from the above rapidly, 
and boil until the solution can be filtered with a clear filtrate. Filter 



196 DAIRY FARMING 

while hot. The residue on the filter paper is the albumin. The sugar 
and the ash remain in the filtrate. 

18. Milk Sugar. The milk sugar is not easily separated from 
the ash. Its presence may be demonstrated by using Fehling's 
solution as follows. To 10 c.c. of the filtrate add 5 c.c. of Fehling's 
solution and boil. The red precipitate shows the presence of sugar. 

19. Ash of Milk. The presence of ash may be demonstrated as 
follows. Take 25 c.c. of milk in an evaporating dish. Add a few 
drops of acetic acid. Place evaporating dish and contents on a sand 
bath and evaporate to dryness. Allow to char slightly, then place 
on a wire gauze over a gas burner and heat until contents char. Re- 
move the gauze and heat over a full flame until all of the carbon is 
burned off. The gray residue is the ash, or mineral matter. 

THE BABCOCKTEST FOR MILK 

20. Test of Whole Milk. Apparatus needed : a hand power cen- 
trifuge or testing machine, 4 to 6 milk test bottles, a pipette to 
measure the milk, an acid measure, ordinary commercial sulfuric 
acid, a small sample of milk, and some hot water. The apparatus 
may be purchased from any dealer in dairy supplies. Sulfuric acid 
may be obtained at any drug store. 

Sam-pling the Milk. The accuracy of the test depends largely on 
the sample taken. The milk to be tested should be thoroughly 
mixed, preferably by pouring several times from one jar to another. 
The milk should be at ordinary room temperatm*e. The small end 
of the pipette is placed in the milk and the milk drawn in by suck- 
ing slowly at the upper end. The milk is drawn somewhat above 
the mark which indicates 17.6 c.c, and the first finger is then quickly 
slipped over the top of the pipette. The milk is then allowed to 
escape slowly until the surface is at the mark on the pipette. The 
small end of the pipette is now placed in the neck of the test bottle 
and the milk allowed to flow into the test bottle. The last drop 
remaining in the point of the pipette should be blown out into the 
test bottle. It is always well to make duplicate tests of each 
sample. 

Adding the Acid. When all the samples are measured out, the 
acid should be added. The acid measure is filled to the 17.5 c.c. 
mark with acid that is at room temperature. The acid is now 
poured into the test bottle, holding the bottle in an inclined position 
so that it runs down the neck and side of the bottle and forms a 
clear layer at the bottom. Next take the bottle by the neck and 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 197 

give it a gentle rotarj'- motion until the curd of the milk is entirely 
dissolved, and the mixture of acid and milk is of a uniform dark cof- 
fee color and very hot. This change in appearance and in tempera- 
ture is the result of the action of the acid upon the constituents of 
the milk, all of which are dissolved except the fat, which is not 
affected. 

Whirling the Bottles. The bottles are now put in the centri- 
fuge. They should be quite hot throughout the whirling. Test- 
ing should not be done in a cold room. It is generally necessary to 
place some boiling water in the bottom of a hand centrifuge to keep 
up the heat during the whirling. The test bottles should be placed 
in the machine so that they balance each other. The rhachine is 
operated for five minutes at the proper speed for the machine, 700 
to 900 revolutions of the disk per minute, depending upon the size 
of the revolving parts. At the end of five minutes the machine 
is stopped, and hot water is added to each bottle by means of the 
pipette until the contents come up to the bottom of the neck. 
Then whirl the machine two minutes more and add hot water 
to bring the fat column near the top of the graduations on the 
neck. Whirl one minute and the tests are ready for reading. 
The fat should be clear and free from black sediment below, or 
foam on top. 

Reading the Test. The test bottles should be placed for a few 
minutes in a deep pail or pan of water, the temperature of which is 
regulated to 130° F. The fat should be in a fluid condition. In 
reading, the test bottle should be held in a perpendicular position 
on the level with the eye. 

The reading on the graduated scale should be noted at the top 
and bottom of the fat column. This reading is made from the ex- 
treme bottom of the fat column to the straight line which is seen 
across the top, and not to the curved line which appears just below. 
The difference between the two readings is the percentage of fat in 
the milk. The neck of the bottle is graduated into large divisions 
which represent per cent, and these again into smaller divisions, 
each of which may be 0.1 per cent, or 0.2 per cent, depending upon 
the style of the bottle. 

Suggestions on Making the Babcock Test. 1. Use the index 
finger, not the thumb, for closing the pipette. Keep the finger dry. 

2. Draw the milk above the mark when measuring, and then hold 
the pipette on level with the eye as the milk is allowed to flow a 
drop at a time until the mark is reached. 



198 DAIRY FARMING 

3. Hold the bottle in a slanting position when adding acid, 
and do not allow the mouth of the bottle to point toward any 
one while the milk and acid are being mixed, as occasionally the 
contents may be forced out suddenly. 

4. Wash the pipette thoroughly, and dip it in hot water after 
using. 

5. The testing machine must be fastened securely to a heavy 
table or bench. Start and stop the machine slowly. 

6. If black sediment appears in the fat column, the indications 
are that the acid was too strong. Use slightly less. If white specks 
are present, it is probable the action of the acid was too weak. Use 
a little more, or warm the milk 10 or 20 degrees before adding the acid. 

7. Wash the test bottles at once after using by means of hot 
water and some washing powder. Rinse thoroughly in clean water 
to remove aU traces of washing powder. 

8. Remember the acid is poison and will burn the clothing or 
skin. If spilled on anything, pour on plenty of water and add some 
lime, soda, or washing powder to neutralize the acid. 

21. Cream Testing. When cream is sold on the basis of the 
fat content, the samples for testing must be weighed rather than 
measured. A test may be made by the following method, but it 
must be kept in mind that the results are not entirely accurate 
and tend to be lower than the true reading. 

Mix the cream thoroughly and by the use of the milk-testing 
pipette, place 17.6 c.c. in a clean cup or beaker. Next fill the pipette 
to the mark with water and add to the cream. Add a second pi- 
pette fuU of water in the same manner. Mix thoroughly and test in 
the same manner as would be done for milk. Since the mixture 
tested is only one-third cream, the percentage of fat found must be 
multiplied by three to give the percentage of fat in the cream. 

VARIATIONS IN AMOUNT OF FAT IN MILK 

22. Fat in Milk of Different Cows. Obtain samples of milk 
from several different cows and determine the percentage of fat in 
each with the Babcock tester. If the weight of milk can be taken 
at the same time, calculate the amount of butter-fat each cow 
produced. Samples for testing should be taken by thoroughly 
mixing all the milk produced by the cow before taking out the 
small portion from which the test is to be made. 

23. Fat in Milk of Different Breeds. Take samples from cows 
of as many breeds as are available and test each for fat. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 199 

24. Fat in First and Last Milk. Take a sample from a single 
cow by milking the first few streams of milk from each teat into a 
jar or bottle. Take the last strippings from the same cow in the 
same manner, and test both for fat. 

25. Fat in Milk Sold on the Local Market. Students from homes 
where milk is purchased should each bring a sample for testing, 
taking special care to get a fair sample in order that injustice may 
not be done the milk dealer. 

26. Modified Milk. Using one of the samples of milk pre- 
viously tested, modify it by the addition of water and milk sugar 
to make it suitable for infant feeding. Modify another sample to 
make it suitable for a colt. 

27. Milk of Different Animals. Obtain milk from as many 
different kinds of animals as possible, mare, sheep, etc., and test 
for fat. 

ESTIMATION OF TOTAL SOLIDS 

28. Total Solids. For this exercise a Quevenne lactometer and a 
glass cylinder are required. Bring the milk sample to a temperature 
of exactly 60° F., and place in the cylinder. Place the lactometer in 
the milk slowly and carefully. When it comes to rest, note the read- 
ing at the surface of the milk. By placing 1.0 before this reading we 
have the specific gravity of the milk. For example, if the reading is 
32, the specific gravity of the milk is 1.032, or that of average milk. 
The solids not fat and the total solids may be estimated from this 
and the Babcock reading by using Babcock's formula as follows, in 
which I is the lactometer reading and / the per cent of fat. 

"i^ + .2 f . = solids not fat. 
4 

Solids not fat + fat = total solids. 

Now add one-fourth water to the milk, and repeat the test as 
described. The results will illustrate one method of detecting 
water in milk. No attempt should be made to use this method for 
detecting water, except in an experimental way, unless the user is a 
trained chemist. 

KEEPING QUALITY OF MILK 

29. Effect of Temperature. When practicable the following 
experiment can be made advantageously. 

Obtain a quantity of fresh milk, preferably not more than 3 hours 
after milking. Divide into two parts, cool one part to 50° F. at 



200 DAIRY FARMING 

once and store in ice water or in an ice box. Adjust the tempera- 
ture of the other sample to between 70° and 80° and leave in a warm 
room. How long before each sours ? 

CREAM SEPARATORS 

30. Separation of Cream. The students should obtain samples 
of skim-milk from as many sources as possible, some from cream 
separators, and others from places where the cream is separated by 
gravity. Make the Babcock test, preferably using a special skim- 
milk test bottle. What was the loss of butter-fat by each method 
of separation? 

BUTTER AND CHEESE 

31. Study of a Factory. Visit a butter, cheese, or condensed 
milk factory, and learn as much as possible of the methods of manu- 
facture, also of the methods of buying, selling, and management. 

32. Judging Butter. If the assistance of a creamery man or 
other competent judge of butter can be had, the class may gather 
a number of butter samples representing the local supply, and judge 
them with his assistance. 

CHEESE 

33. Making Curd. Dissolve a rennet tablet according to the 
directions of the manufacturer, add it to milk and observe the effect. 
Compare the curd formed with that from sour milk in taste and con- 
dition. Curd made in this way is used in cheese making. 

34. Fat in Cheese. Weigh out 5 grams of cheese, cut it into 
small pieces, and put in a milk test bottle. Add 10 cc. of warm 
water and acid as in testing milk. After the cheese is dissolved, 
complete the test as for milk. 

Since the test bottle is graduated for 18 grams, the percentage of 
fat for the cheese must be calculated for that amount by dividing 
the fat reading by the weight of cheese taken in grams and multi- 
plying the result by 18. 

COLLATERAL READING 

The Production of Clean Milk, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulle- 
tin 602. 

Bacteria in Milk, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 490. 

The Care of Milk and Its Use in the Home, U. S. Dept. Agr., 
Farmers' Bulletin 416. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 201 

The Use of Milk as Food, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 363. 

The Application of Refrigeration to the Handhng of Milk, U. S. 
Dept. Agr., Bulletin 98. 

Farm Butter Making, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 541. 

Cream Separators on Western Farms, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' 
Bulletin 201. 

Household Tests for the Detection of Oleomargarine and Reno- 
vated Butter, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 131. 

Cheese Making on the Farm, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 
166. 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. Ill, pp. 
175-246. 

Medical Milk Commission and Certified Milk, U. S. Dept. Agr., 

Bulletin 1. 

Condensed Milk and Milk Powder, O. F. Hunziker. 

Milk and Its Products, H. H. Wing. 



CHAPTER 9 



CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF 

DAIRYING 

G. F. Warren 

184. Cattle and Grass. Cattle raising goes with the 
raising of hay and forage crops. How closely the growth of 
these crops limits the production of cattle is shown by Figs. 




Fig. 64. — Distribution of the hay and forage crops of the United States. 

Compare with Fig. 65. 

64 and 65, taken from the United States Census reports. 
In the South and in the arid regions there are a few 
more cattle than the hay and forage crops would suggest, 
because some of the cattle in these regions are pastured all 
the year and therefore require little or no hay. 

202 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 



203 



Table 22. — Cattle and Hay and Forage (Census of 1910) 



Region 



New England . . 
Middle Atlantic . 
East North Central 
West North Central 
Pacific .... 
Mountain . . . 
South Atlantic . 
East South Central 
West South Central 



Cattle 



1,336,550 
4,232,521 
9,819,097 

17,647,714 
3,204,400 
6,060,725 
4,839,321 
3,942,526 

10,721,012 



Dairy Cows 



841,698 
2,597,652 
4,829,527 
5,327,606 
826,115 
514,466 
1,810,754 
1,628,061 
2,249,553 



Tons Hat 
AND Forage 



4,659,906 

11,302,178 

20,391,562 

36,326,167 

7,306,590 

8,600,736 

2,917,870 

2,565,716 

3,383,010 



185. Topography and Climate. As has already been indi- 
cated cool regions are more favorable than hot ones for the 
dairy cow as well as for the manufacture of dairy products. 




Fig. 65. — Distribution of cattle in the United States. 

Most of the cattle of the world are grown on pastures on 
land that is too dry, too wet, too steep, too stony, or other- 
wise not adapted for the growth of crops. All regions that 



204 DAIRY FARMING 

have such pastures keep cattle or sheep. In regions where 
all the land is well adapted to crops, cattle production is 
usually but not always a minor business. But cattle are 
often fattened in such regions. Very frequently the final 
factor in determining whether cattle shall be kept is the 
presence or absence of land that is good for pasture, but not 
good for crop production. For instance, in parts of the 
corn-belt there is so little rough pasture land that fewer 



' , 










"""^ 




m 




V 


^ 





Fig, 66. — Using the stony land for pasture. 

cows are kept than otherwise would be. Most of the milk 
supply for Chicago and for New York comes from north of 
these cities, partly because of the presence of pastures and 
partly because of the cooler climate. 

186. Location of Beef and Dairy Cattle. It is apparent 
that the number of cattle in a region is directly dependent 
on the presence of hay and forage crops, or on ranges. 
Whether the cattle shall be of the beef or dairy type de- 
pends primarily on the distance to the centers of popu- 
lation. Beef animals can be shipped long distances. They 
are therefore grown farthest from the centers of population. 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 205 

Seventy-four per cent of the steers and bulls in the United 
States are west of the Mississippi River, but only thirty 
per cent of the population is in that region. 

The relative weight and bulk of the feed and of the human 
food made from it, the perishability of the product, and the 
cost of feed are the primary factors that determine where 
different animal products shall be raised. When a hberal 




Fig. 67. — A dairy region where the level land is used lor crops, the side 
hills for pasture and the poorest land is left in woods. 

use of corn silage and pasture is made, and if we include 
the feed for the young stock as well as for the mature ani- 
mals, a pound of butter represents approximately 100 pounds 
of feed. A pound of cheese or dressed beef represents about 
50 pounds of feed, and a pound of milk 5 pounds of feed. 

If drier feeds are used, the quantities will be less, but 
approximately the same proportions will still hold. With 
hay and grain a cow sometimes gives a pound of milk for 
each pound of feed. A steer fed in a box stall for three 
years used 38 pounds of feed for each pound of dressed beef.^ 

1 Ontario Agricultural College, Reprort, 1893, p. 122. 



206 



DAIRY FARMING 



Evidently cattle may be used to condense large quantities of 
roughage into beef and butter for shipment to distant markets. 
Another factor favoring the location of beef cattle in the 
regions of least population is the fact that beef animals can 
thrive on ranges that are too poor to support a good dairy 
cow. In the irrigated valleys of the Northwest that have 




Fig. 68. — Distribution of dairy cows in the United States. The largest 
numbers of dairy cows are kept in the cool regions that have good blue- 
grass pastures. 

excellent blue-grass pastures dairy cows have practically 
displaced beef cattle, but the dry range grasses that are 
just above the irrigation ditch are given over to beef cattle 
or sheep. Most of the beef animals are raised west of the 
Mississippi River, although many of them are fattened east 
of it. 

In 1910 the New England, Middle Atlantic and East 
North Central States had over 4 out of each 10 dairy cows 
in the United States, but had less than 1 out of each 10 
other cows. 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 



207 



The adjustment that the farmers have made to meet the 
conditions is shown in Table 23. On April 1, 1910, Nebraska 
and Iowa had more than one-fourth as many yearling steers 
and bulls (3 months to 15 months) as they had cows and 
heifers (15 months old or older). Practically all the calves 
born in these states are raised. Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio 
had less than one-sixth as many yearling steers or bulls as 



Table 23. — Steers on Farms on April 1, 1910 



State 


Steers and Bulls 

born in 1909, per 100 

Cowsi 


Steers and Bulls 

born before 1909, per 

100 Cows 


Colorado 


18 


46 


Nebraska 










26 


40 


Iowa . . 










28 


36 


Illinois . . 










15 


20 


Indiana 










15 


15 


Ohio . . 










14 


15 


New York 










4 


3 


Massachusetts 








3 


3 



cows, and New York and Massachusetts had only one steer 
or bull for 15 to 16 cows. In these two states practically 
no steers are kept. The number reported represents practi- 
cally the number of bulls. Instead of raising steers, these 
two Eastern States sell practically all their bull calves as 
veal. Near the cities, both the heifer and bull calves are 
often killed at birth, as feed is too expensive to make it pay 
to keep them even up to the legal age for veal. The East 
Central States sell many of their calves for veal, but raise 
some steers. The West Central States raise nearly all their 

1 Number of steers and bulls for each 100 cows and heifers born before 
Jan. 1, 1909. Since many heifers too young to have calves are included 
with cows, the figures are all low in terms of milch cows. 



208 



DAIRY FARMING 



calves. The age at which the steers are sold also shows 
an adjustment to feed prices. The Western States keep 
their steers to two or three years of age, as is shown by the 
fact that they have twice as many of the older ones as of 
the yearlings. 

During the past few years there has been some discussion 
about introducing beef cattle in the Northeast, but there 



/s 






DAIRY PRODUCTS 


1 


i 




1^ 


RECEIPTS FROM SALE, 190 


EACH DOT REPRESENTS \\ 

$100,000 \,^ \ 


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Fig. 69. — Receipts from the sale of dairy products. This map shows 
the location of the centers of commercial dairying, as contrasted with those 
in which cows are kept to supply products for home use only.^ 

is little chance for such an enterprise to succeed. The sum- 
mer pastures are fairly cheap, but the cost of winter feed for 
a beef cow is more than the value of her calf. 

187. Relation of Transportation to Dairying. Not only are 
the relative positions of beef and dairy cattle determined by 
the problem of transportation, but in dairy regions the kind 
of product that is to be' produced is controlled by the dis- 
tance that the products must be shipped. Butter, cheese, 

1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1915, p. 395. 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 



209 



milk flour, and condensed milk are concentrated for their 
value and can be shipped long distances. Cream for direct 
use can be shipped farther than milk because it is more con- 
centrated for its value. It is sometimes shipped from St. 

Percent 
Of Iowa 
price 
ZOO 



175 
150 
125 
100 



75 





























• 




• 




.H.c>.:f. 


y^ 

/ 
/ 






Cc 




/ ^ 


^ 




~^ 


pulJS 







lowd. in. 



li\d Ohio N.Y 11^55 



Fig. 70. — Average farm prices for five years, 1910-1914. As we go 
eastward the prices of hay and corn rise faster than does the price of butter. 
This favors the production of butter where feed is cheap. 

Lawrence County, New York, to Washington, D. C, about 
500 miles. 

Milk is the most bulky of the dairy products for its value 
and is also very perishable, so that it is produced nearest to 
the places where it is to be consumed. The city must 
reach out just far enough to obtain its necessary supply. 
Milk is now regularly sljipped to New York City from points 
over 300 miles away. 

Farms that are favorably situated for the sale of milk 
cannot afford to produce butter for sale on the wholesale mar- 
ket. Hay and other feeds are too valuable nearer the cities. 



210 



DAIRY FARMING 



One who under such conditions produces butter or cheese 
is using more expensive raw materials and gets little if any 
more for his product. 

In 1912 farmers who sold milk to cities in different parts 
of the United States received an average of 3.57 cents per 
quart above all shipping costs. The averages varied from 
2.9 to 4.4 cents for different cities.^ In the same year the 
average farm price of butter was 26.1 cents per pound. ^ 
The price received for the milk was probably equal to 36 
cents per pound for butter. 

How difficult it is for farmers near cities to compete in 
butter production with those who have cheaper feed is 
shown by a comparison of prices in Ne\Y York and Iowa. 
The average farm prices in 1914 are given in Table 24. 



Table 24. — Average Farm Prices in Iowa and in New York ^ 





Iowa 


New 


York 


Butter 

Hay ....... . 

Corn 


$ .26 

10.10 

.55 


$ .31 
14.60 

.83 


Per Cent of 
Iowa Price 

119 
145 
151 



Butter was only 19 per cent higher on New York farms 
than on Iowa farms, but hay was 45 per cent higher and 
corn 51 per cent higher than in Iowa. Other feeds are in 
about the same proportion. It is evident that butter and 
cheese production must shift to the regions of cheap feed. 
This shift is most strikingly shown by census figures. All 

1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Weekly News Letter to Crop Reporters, Sept. 24, 
1913. 

2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1912, p. 686. 

3 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1914, pp. 516, 570, 626. 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 



211 



of the northern states east of Indiana produced much less 
butter in 1909 than they did ten years before. The Chicago 
demand for milk was strong enough to cause a decrease in 
butter production in Illinois. 

In New York, butter production decreased 40 per cent and 
cheese production decreased 19 per cent in ten years. At 



CREAMERIES 
1914- 






-J- 




{ 


1 . . ^ 


\ 



Fig. 71. 



Location of creameries in the United States. ^ 



the same time cheese production increased 88 per cent in 
Wisconsin, and butter production increased 50 per cent in 
Minnesota. 

The great center of butter production is west of Chicago. 
More butter is shipped from Chicago to the Eastern States 
than is produced in the nine North Atlantic States. ^ Wis- 
consin, Iowa, and Minnesota are the leading butter states, 
in the order named. From the rapid rate of increase, it is 
probable that Minnesota will rank first at the next census 



1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1915, p. 396. 

2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 177. 



212 



DAIRY FARMING 



period. There is no reason to suppose that any other state 
will be a close competitor with Wisconsin in cheese production. 

Table 25. — Pounds Butter and Cheese made on Farms 
AND IN Factories^ 





Butter 


Cheese 




1899 


1909 


Per Cent 
Increase 


1899 


1909 


Per Cent 
Increase 


New York 
Wisconsin 
Minnesota 


115,408,222 

106,552,649 

82,363,315 


69,358,918 
131,085,193 
123,551,515 


-40 
23 
50 


130,010,584 
79,384,298 


105,584,947 
148,906,910 


-19 

88 



These declines in New York do not mean that the dairy 
business has declined. They merely show that the readily 




Fig. 72. — Location of cheese factories in the United States.^ 

transportable dairy products are coming from regions of 
cheaper feed. At the same time that these decreases have 

1 Thirteenth Census, Vol. V, p. 489. 

2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1915, p. 397. 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 



213 



taken place in butter and cheese production, the amount of 
milk sold to be consumed as milk has more than doubled 
(increased about 121 per cent). There is still much butter 
and cheese produced in New York and other eastern states 
and will be for some time to come. The amount of land 
that is good for pasture but not good for crops is more than 
enough to supply all the milk needed in the cities. The 




Fig. 73. — Distribution of cheese production in the United States. 
Most of the cheese is produced in regions that are cool, and that have good 
pastures on soils well supplied with lime.^ 

remaining land is used for the production of cheese and but- 
ter. As the populations of the cities increase, the production 
of both of these will decrease. Some butter will always 
be made because the milk supply cannot be just right 
for each day's demand. The excess is usually made into 
butter. 

188. Other Adjustment due to Transportation. Because 
of differences in prices of feed and kinds of products sold, the 

^ Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 231. 



214 DAIRY FARMING 

methods of dairying are very different in different regions. 
Near cities the cost of feed is so high and the value of the 
protein in milk (skim-milk) is so great that the raising of 
calves is very expensive. Many fanners who are thus sit- 
uated regularly buy their cows. This is certain to continue 
to be the general practice. This provides a steady market 
for mature cows from regions where feed and milk are both 
cheaper. Such men can raise more calves than they need 
and can sell some of them as cows. 

Because of the expense of raising cows where feed is high 
priced, the tendency in such regions is to keep the cows 
longer. On New York farms, there were 7 cows for each 
yearling heifer in 1910, indicating that the average cow 
is probably kept until she is 8 or 9 years old. In Wisconsin 
there was one yearling heifer for each 4.7 cows. In Iowa 
there was one heifer for each 3.6 cows. In these states the 
cows are kept about half as long as they are in New York. 

189. Marginal Regions. There are of course many regions 
where the conditions are about equally favorable for each 
class of dairy products. The region may be at the end of 
the milk-shipping region so that the freight charges on milk 
make the net price of milk about the same as that of butter. 
Such regions tend to prevent the price of milk from rising. 
If it rises much, farmers stop making cheese or butter and 
ship the milk ; and if the price drops, they go back to butter 
or cheese making. 

190. Effect of Distance to Railroad. Back from the rail- 
roads on which milk or cream is shipped there are some- 
times communities or farms that find it better to make 
butter than to haul milk too far. In many of the milk-sell- 
ing regions there are such examples. Sometimes the farmers 
get calves from men living near the railroad, take them to 



Xi 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 



215 



the distant farm to be raised, and then sell the cows back 
to the dairymen nearer the railroad. It is often more profit- 
able for the farmers in such regions to cooperate and haul 
the milk to the railroad. 

191. Soil and Climate as Determining the Kind of Prod- 
uct. There are no important dairy regions that do not 

Per Cent 
16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

G 

2 











/ 




















k 


/ / 

1 


^\ 


^ 
















j 


1 

1 




\ 


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•\ 












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1 
f 





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'**•♦, 


x 




'/ ' 










\ 




^v. 

V 


— ~— ^^ 


/ 


/ 














\ 




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/ 


















*\ 

























Milk 



Butter 
Cre&m 



CKeese 



)dj\. Feb. Mar A|3r. M&y June July Aug. 5ept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 

Fig. 74. — Proportion of the year's product made in each month. Record 
for cheese made in Wisconsin, butter received in Chicago, and milk and 
cream received in New York. Most of the cheese and butter is made in 
summer and stored for winter use. 

have good pastures. Cheese production appears to have a 
further limitation. Nearly all the cheese is produced in 
cool regions that have a limestone soil or that have a soil 
fairly well supplied with lime. Butter is produced on all 
kinds of soils, but most of the commercial product is from 
regions where the soil and climate will grow good pastures. 
192. Kind of Product and Season for Production. The 
demand for milk in the cities is practically constant. Fifty- 
two per cent of the total milk shipped to New York City is 



216 



DAIRY FARMING 



received during the six months beginning May 1. But 
almost two-thirds (64 per cent) of the cream is used during 
the summer months.^ 

Because pasture is so much cheaper than winter feed, the 
products that are readily stored, such as condensed milk, 



Butter |De rib. 
^2t 




















Milk per qt 
42^ 


40, 




•.. 
















...- 


,j 


40 


38. 




•• 


% 












.•i 






^3.8 


36. 






'.y 










^« 


.* 






_ 3.6 


34_ 








'•. 






y 


••* 








-34 


32 _ 








\ 




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_3.2 


30„ 
























-3.0 


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- 2.8 


26.. 


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y 


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2.6 


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X 











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^ 


y 






u 2.4 


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L22 



Aiv. Feb. Maj: Apr May June July Au^. Sept Oct. Nov. Dec. 

Fig. 75. — Average farm prices of butter and of market milk at shipping 
stations for the five years 1910-1914. In order to secure a constant supply 
of milk the prices in the different months have to be in proportion to the 
costs of production in each month, but the amount of stored butter prevents 
the winter price of butter from rising as. high as it otherwise would. 

butter, cheese, and milk flour, are most largely produced on 
grass. About 75 per cent of the cheese in Wisconsin is pro- 
duced in the six months beginning with May.^ Over three- 
fifths (63 per cent) of the butter received in Chicago is 
received during these six months.^ 

1 The Milk Reporter, Feb., 1915, p. 16. 

' Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 231, p. 21. 

3 Chicago Dairy Produce, Jan. 16, 1915, p. 5. 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 



217 



Of course some butter and cheese is produced in all 
months. The problem is whether to have the cows freshen 
in the spring, and thereby have most of the production made 
on pasture ; or to have them freshen in the fall, and therefore 
have most of the production made in winter. It is perfectly 
clear that the majority of farmers find that the summer dairy 
pays best for cheese and butter. Many of those who sell 
market milk have the cows freshen in the fall. 



Table 26. — Five-year Average Farm Prices of Butter in 
THE United States, 1910-1914 ; and Three-year Average 
Prices of Market Milk at Shipping Stations, 1913-1915 









Milk ^ 


Butter 2 




Cents per 


Per Cent of 


Cents per 


Per Cent of 




Quart 


Dec. Price 


Pound 


Dec. Price 


January 


4.13 


99 


28.4 


100 


February 






4.06 


97 


27.2 


96 


March 






3.90 


93 


25.9 


92 


April . . 






3.61 


86 


25.4 


90 


May . . 






3.21 


77 


24.7 


87 


June . . 






3.16 


75 


23.5 


83 


July . . 






3.33 


79 


22.9 


81 


August . 






3.49 


83 


23.6 


83 


September 






3.66 


87 


24.7 


87 


October 






3.98 


95 


25.8 


91 


November 






4.14 


.99 


26.7 


94 


December 






4.19 


100 


28.3 


100 



The average farm price of butter in the United States by 
months is given in Table 26, also the average farm price of 
milk that is shipped to the leading cities. The highest 
price of milk is reached in December. The June price is 

1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Weekly News Letter to Crop Correspondents, Sept. 
24, 1913, Jan. 20, 1915, Apr. 28, 1915. 

* U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbooks. * 



218 DAIRY FARMING 

only 75 per cent of the December price. Butter is less 
variable in price. The butter held in storage prevents the 
winter price from rising as high as it would otherwise go. 
Under normal conditions this stored butter prevents the 
winter price from rising high enough to cover the increased 
cost of feed as it must do in the case of milk. The winter 
prices of butter and cheese are based not primarily on the 
cost of winter feed, but on the cost of summer feed plus the 
cost of storage. 

In spite of this difference in favor of production of butter 
on pasture, there are some farms that can produce it in win- 
ter to the best advantage. Occasionally a farmer sells but- 
ter at retail at such a high winter price that it more than 
covers the higher feed cost. If the farmer is very short of 
pasture and has an abundance of cheap winter feed, winter 
production may pay. Sometimes the pressure of other work 
in the summer is enough to more than offset the difference in 
feed cost. Occasionally a farmer has such profitable summer 
work and so much of it that he cannot afford to milk cows 
in the summer, but may be able to milk them for butter pro- 
duction in winter. 

193. Animal Unit Defined. In order to compare the 
amount of live-stock on different farms, it is necessary to 
reduce all kinds of animals to some common basis. One 
cow, bull, or horse is called an animal unit. Two head of 
young stock are counted as one unit. Seven sheep, fourteen 
lambs, five hogs, ten pigs, one hundred hens, are each 
counted as one animal unit. In each case the numbers given 
represent a group that eats approximately as much food 
as a cow or horse, and produces manure worth as much as 
that produced by a cow or horse. Similarly, the number of 
cattle units on a farm are the approximate equivalent in 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 219 

grown cattle. To find the number of cattle units add half 
the number of young stock to the number of cows and bulls. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Is your region more or less favorable for cattle production 
than the average of the country ? Consider the ease with which per- 
manent pastures are maintained, length of the pasture season, 
amount of pasture land that is not good for crop growing, amount 
of good forage crops grown, cost of winter feed, and total cost of 
feed for the entire year. 

2. Is the region relatively better for beef or for dairy cattle? 
Some of the points to consider are : cost of feed, coolness of the cli- 
mate, whether the pasture grass is luxuriant enough to maintain a 
good flow of milk, and the market for dairy products. 

3. What form of dairy products are usually most profitable in 
this region ? Why ? 

4. From the railroad agent find the amounts shipped in a car- 
load of cattle, of butter, of milk, of cream. What is the freight on a 
car-load of each to the nearest large city ? Use the same city in each 
case. 

5. From farmers, find about how many pounds of feed are repre- 
sented in a car-load of each of the above products. 

6. From the census report for your state, fill in the following table : 
Number of farms in the state 

• Number of dairy cows 
Number of dairy cows per farm 
Quantity of milk produced 
Quantity of milk produced per cow * 
Pounds of butter made on farms 
Pounds of butter made in factories 

Total pounds of butter 
Pounds of cheese made on farms 
Pounds of cheese made in factories 

Total pounds of cheese 
Amount of milk sold 
Amount of cream sold 
Amount of butter-fat sold 

1 Notice that this is too low because some heifers that are too young 
to give milk are included with cows. 



220 DAIRY FARMING 

Total value of all dairy products sold 

Average value of dairy products sold per farm 
7; Compared with the preceding census, which of the following 
are increasing and which decreasing : number of cows ; butter made 
on farms ; butter made in factories ; cheese. In each case give the 
reasons for the change. 

8. A similar study may be made for the county. 

9. How may steers and bulls born before 1909, and born in 1909, 
are there in your state or county for each 100 dairy cows ? Compare 
with Table 23, page 207. What proportion do dairy cows represent 
of all cattle? Compare with Table 22, page 203. 

10. How many beef and dairy cows were there in your state or 
county? How many heifers born in 1909? How many cows for 
each heifer? Compare with the figures on page 214. 

11. Are the calves in your region raised, or sold for veal? If 
sold, at what age? 

12. Does your region produce all its dairy cows? Does it pro- 
duce any to be shipped to other regions ? 

13. About what proportion of the cows in the dairy herds of 
your region are replaced each year? 

14. At what time of the year is most of the milk, butter, or cheese 
of your region produced ? Why ? 

COLLATERAL READING 
Farm Management, G. F. Warren, pp. 43-103, 276-278. 



CHAPTER 10 

SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 

G. F. Warren 

Dairy farms may be classified according to the cropping 
system that they use, also according to whether they raise 
or buy their feed, and may be compared in many other 
ways. A few of these problems of organization are here 
discussed. 

Crops for Feed 

194. Corn Silage. The most striking change in the dairy 
industry in the last century has come in connection with the 
use of the silo. This provides a succulent feed in the winter 
and makes it possible to obtain a better production of milk 
at that time of year. The silo is a means of saving corn- 
stalks in the best possible form for winter use. It does not 
increase the value of the grain. In fact, there is always some 
loss in the silo, and the cost of putting corn into the silo is 
more than the cost of husking from standing stalks. Aside 
from its value as a succulent feed, it is primarily a substitu- 
tion of corn-stalks for hay. In regions where the season is 
too short for maturing corn, it may still be grown for the 
silo. In arid regions corn and other crops that would not 
produce much grain are nevertheless of value for silage. 

Few crops except corn and similar plants are used gener- 
ally for the silo. Crops that make good hay are best stored 

221 



222 DAIRY FARMING 

as hay, because hay can be handled more cheaply and be- 
cause the hay crops pack so loosely in the silo that the 
losses are considerable. 

The higher the price of hay, the more important a silo 
becomes. The more general use of silos in the East is pri- 
marily due to the high price of hay. The average farm 
price of hay in New York is 86 per cent above that in Ne- 
braska, but in every region the price is rising so that interest 
in silos is general. 

Next to the price of hay the number of cattle is the pri- 
mary consideration in building a silo. A silo that holds 
much less than 75 to 100 tons is expensive for its capacity. 
But such a silo will furnish feed for 20 to 30 cattle during 
the winter months. It is usually not profitable to have a 
silo for less than 10 cattle. If one has over 20 cattle in a 
region where corn grows well, a silo is usually profitable. 
Between these limits the price of hay, the amount of money 
available, the machinery that must be purchased, and 
whether winter or summer dairying is followed, will deter- 
mine whether or not a silo will be profitable. In Livingston 
County, New York, only 7 per cent of the farmers who had 
fewer than 15 cattle units had silos, but 83 per cent of those 
who had 25 or more cattle units had silos. 

Silage costs more than the estimates often given. In 
the Eastern States it usually costs about $4 to $5 per ton. 
It is often considered to be worth one-third as much as hay. 

In the corn-belt a ton of silage often contains about five 
bushels of corn. To compare the cost of silage with the value 
of corn husked from the standing stalks, we must add to 
the value of the corn grain the extra cost of puttipg it in the 
silo, and interest on the money invested in the silo, and an- 
nual depreciation of the silo. These extra costs often amount 



SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 223 

to $1 per ton. On this basis silage usually costs $3 to $4 
per ton. 

195. Soiling Crops. Sometimes dairy cattle are kept in 
the barn, and green feed is brought to them rather than 
provide pasture for them. This system is practiced in some 
places in Europe and occasionally in America. The system 
will keep more cows on a given area of land, and it is 
therefore frequently advocated by persons who do not un- 
derstand American farming. When land is very high in 
price, or labor very cheap, it is a good system. On the edge 
of cities it sometimes pays because land for pasture would 
be too expensive. The high price received for the milk may 
make it possible to follow this expensive method and yet 
make a profit. The large amount of labor involved is shown 
by results at the New Jersey Experiment Station. The 
equivalent of 50 cows was kept for 6 months on various 
soiling crops. During that time 278 tons of green crops 
were hauled to the barn. The cost of the labor to haul these 
crops to the barn, to say nothing of the cost of growing 
them, would be more than the entire cost of pasture in 
many dairy regions. It often pays to cut some corn-stalks 
or to give some other feed at times when the pasture is short, 
as discussed on page 128, but this is. very different from fol- 
lowing a soiUng system. Such feeding is supplementing 
pasture, not trying to do without it. Even when land be- 
comes high in price and labor cheap, it is not probable that 
a soiUng system will be generally used in America, because 
corn silage is cheaper and is as good. Any system of barn 
feeding during the pasture season means that milk is being 
produced on the winter basis of cost, whereas the product 
must be sold at the summer price, which is much lower. 

196. Roots. Mangels, sugar beets, or other root crops 



224 DAIRY FARMING 

are much grown for stock food in Europe, but in regions 
where corn silage can be grown, such crops are not Ukely to 
be raised extensively, because corn silage is nearly as good 
and is cheaper. The cool moist climate of Europe and the 
cheap labor are favorable for growing roots. Our climate 
is better adapted to corn, and our labor is so costly that 
root crops are expensive feed. The farmer who keeps too 
small a herd to justify him in having a silo, sometimes finds 
that it pays to raise root crops to give a succulent feed in 
winter. Roots are a very expensive feed, but a few pounds 
a day will often increase the milk yield enough to pay. Per- 
sons who make advanced registry tests usually raise mangels 
or beets to feed to the cows while on test. Root crops also 
have a place in regions where the season is so short that 
corn silage cannot be raised. 

197. Legumes. The importance of raising alfalfa, clover, 
or some other legume has already been emphasized. Many 
farms in the eastern half of the United States are better 
adapted to clover than to alfalfa, but where alfalfa grows 
without too much difficulty it is preferred. Cowpeas are 
the most common legume in the South. Soybeans, vetch, 
and many other legumes are grown by some farmers, but in 
most parts of the North, alfalfa or clover is more profitable. 

198. Pasture. The common pasture plants in the north- 
eastern quarter of the United States are Kentucky blue-grass 
and white clover. On land that is deficient in lime, Canada 
blue-grass or redtop is often the chief pasture plant. Blue- 
grass requires several years to form a good sod. If the pas- 
ture land is well supplied with lime and is fairly fertile, the 
pasture usually requires little attention, but if it is not 
fertile, more care is necessary. In the South the common 
pasture plant is Bermuda grass. 



SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 225 

199. Home-grown Grain. In the corn-belt it nearly always 
pays to raise more corn than the cattle eat. Since there is 
an abundance of corn, it should be fed as liberally as possible 
and yet have a good ration. In the Eastern States and 
north of the corn-belt farm-grown oats are often ground for 
cow feed. Oats are nearly always too high in price to be a 
profitable feed to buy, but the costs of marketing the oats 
and hauling other feeds to take their place are often enough 
to make it pay to feed the oats that one has. 

Cropping Systems on Dairy Farms 

200. Principles of a Good Cropping System. The great 
majority of the dairy cows are in the northeastern quarter 
of the United States (see Fig. 68), east of central Nebraska 
and north of Washington, D.C. Most of this region is 
adapted to timothy, blue-grass, and clover. Permanent 
pastures of blue-grass and white clover are common. The 
usual cropping system is : 

Corn or other tilled crops on sod land for one or more 
years. 

Small grain for one or two years with timothy and clover 
seeded in the last year. 

Hay for one or more years, or hay followed by pasture. 

This is an ideal cropping system for the dairy farm. The 
three different classes of crops supplement each other in the 
control of weeds. The corn furnishes silage or grain or both. 
The small grain gives its best yield and at least cost when 
grown after a tilled crop. The grasses and clover are started 
by seeding in the small grain at very low cost. If the land 
is adapted to clover, this helps to supply the protein that 
is not provided in sufficient quantity by the other feeds grown 
in the rotation. 

Q 



226 



DAIRY FARMING 



Everywhere a good rotation for a dairy farm should if 
possible provide clover, alfalfa, or some other legume for 
hay and should provide an abundance of roughage and pas- 
ture. It should if possible provide a cash crop, or a feeding 
crop for some other class of animals, such as corn for hog 
feed. 

201. Examples of Rotations. There are many variations 
of this rotation plan that follow the general principles given 






Iw^i^*: 



4..^ 



Fig. 76. — A good basis for profitable dairying ; high-grade cows on a 
good blue-grass pasture ; corn for the silo in the background ; clover in an 
adjoining field ; timothy and oats also raised. 



above. In the southern part of the region described above, 
from southern Pennsylvania to Kansas, a common rotation 
is corn, winter wheat, clover. 

A little farther north, corn is removed too late for the 
planting of wheat, therefore oats are grown_ following corn. 
In the Northeastern States, corn, potatoes, cabbage, and other 
tilled crops are usually followed by oats in which grass is 
seeded. The hay is usually left for about three years. In 
this region hay does well and is high in price. 



SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 227 

In the best part of the corn-belt, corn is raised for several 
years in succession because this is the most important crop. 
A good rotation for much of this region is corn two years, 
followed by one year of oats in which clover and timothy 
are seeded. This may be cut for one or two years, or if there 
is not a permanent blue-grass pasture, it may be cut for hay 
one year and pastured one year. 

in regions where alfalfa is grown, systems of cropping are 
not so definitely established. Perhaps the ideal dairy region 
is one that is naturally adapted to corn and alfalfa and that 
has permanent pastures of blue-grass and white clover. 

In the South, a good rotation is cotton one or two years, 
followed by corn. The corn is followed by one year of oats 
and cowpeas, the oat crop being harvested in time to raise 
a crop of cowpeas the same year. Cowpeas or some other 
crop is sometimes planted between the rows of corn. This 
system, together with Bermuda grass pastures, provides 
legumes, corn, pasture, and a cash crop. The legume and 
pasture are, however, more expensive to raise than are 
the grasses of the North. There is room for a great develop- 
ment of dairying in the South, but the greatest dairy centers 
will remain in the regions where grass grows more readily. 

These are but a few of the great variety of cropping sys- 
tems followed on different dairy farms. 

Cash Crops and Feed Raised 

202. Feed and Cash Crops. There are many ways in 
which the type of farming on dairy farms may be described. 
Some of the most important comparisons are based on the 
extent to which feed is purchased and the amount of other 
products sold. The following are some of the different 
methods : 



228 DAIRY FARMING 

1. All feed bought, no crops raised, nothing but milk and 
discarded cows sold. 

2. Nothing but roughage raised. 

3. Roughage and all or part of the grain raised. 

4. Same as 2, but with some cash crop or other product 
sold. 

5. Same as 3, with some cash crop or other product sold. 

6. With any of the above methods, the cows may be raised 
or may be purchased. 

7. The cows may be pure-bred so that there is a consid- 
erable income from the sale of stock. 

In general, each of the above types is more profitable than 
the preceding, provided the conditions are favorable for it. 

203. All Feed Purchased. Some dairy cows are kept in 
cities. Most of these are kept to supply milk for home use, 
but some large dairies are maintained where all feed must be 
purchased. Usually the cows are fed largely on factory by- 
products that are not readily shipped. But sometimes or- 
dinary feeds are purchased. The high price received for 
the milk sometimes makes such an enterprise profitable. 
Calves are very rarely raised in cities, because feed is too 
expensive. Ordinarily it is cheaper to produce the milk in 
the country where pastures are available. It costs less to 
ship milk than it does to ship the hay and other feed required 
to make it. 

204. Nothing but Roughage Raised. This system is 
very common in the hilly and mountainous parts of the 
Eastern States. A better system is not easy to devise for 
some regions where the land is not adapted to any crop ex- 
cept hay and pasture and where the fields are all so small 
and rough as to prevent the profitable growth of other crops. 

Because of the small amount of field work, it is not often 



SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 229 

profitable to employ much hired help. The farmer with 
the help of one member of the family at chore time can milk 
20 or 25 cows and, therefore, under this system, the women 
often help with the milking. The farmer can do the re- 
mainder of the day's work alone. In haying time he may 
need a little extra help. Such farmers usually find that it 
pays best to have the cows freshen in the spring so as to pro- 
duce most of the milk in summer and thus reduce the grain 
bill. One of the important reasons for winter dairying is 
to have the summer free for field work, but on farms where 
little field work is done this is no advantage. 

Under these conditions the milk production per cow is the 
most important problem because profits depend almost en- 
tirely on the cow. It is sometimes possible to find some other 
product besides milk that can be raised without much extra 
cost. Berries, eggs, honey, or hay will often add much to 
the income. Sometimes pure-bred stock is kept and a good 
profit made from the sale of the surplus animals. 

205. Roughage and Grain Raised. Where the land is 
good enough to raise grain, this system pays much better 
than the preceding one because the grain feed can be raised 
without having to hire much extra labor, and with practically 
the same number of horses that must be kept anyway. 
(See Farm Records on page 281.) 

206. Roughage and Cash Crops Raised. One of the 
most profitable types of dairy farming is the combination of 
intensive cash crops with a dairy. The manure is used 
to grow potatoes, cabbages, apples, tobacco, hops, peas, 
or sweet corn for canning factories, or some other crop for 
sale. Where the soil and markets are favorable for one or 
two of these crops, this system usually pays much better 
than trying to raise the grain feed. It is, of course, much 



230 DAIRY FARMING 

better to raise the grain feed than nothing. But if instead 
of raising the grain, one can raise cash crops that will pay 
the feed bill several times over, he should certainly choose 
the latter course. Hay is another good cash crop for dairy 
farms near large cities. Most of the highly successful dairy 
farms in New York and New England sell some crops, as do 
many of the farms in other sections. Some of these farms 
also raise all their grain feed, but most of them buy a consider- 
able part of it. (See Farm Records on pages 242 and 285.) 

Farther from the cities the cash crops are more likely to 
be grain or grain marketed through hogs. This is the most 
commonly profitable type of dairy farming in the corn-belt. 
It is certain to increase greatly in that region. All of the 
roughage and most of the grain is raised for all of the farm 
sfock. A little cottonseed meal, or other nitrogenous feed, 
is purchased to balance the ration. Much more corn is 
raised than can be fed to the cows. This is sold or is fed to 
hogs. If skim-milk is available for hog feed, the conditions 
are particularly favorable for hog production. (See Farm 
Records, page 281.) 

Management of Manure 

The success of the dairy farm is in no small measure de- 
pendent on the use that is made of the important by-product, 
manure. 

207. Amount of Manure Produced. Under the direction 
of the writer, R. E. Deuel determined the amount of manure 
produced by a herd of 46 cows of different breeds and ages, 
averaging 1008 pounds in weight. He found that excrement 
was produced at the rate of 13f tons per year. Some years 
ago Roberts found the amount to be 13.5 tons per 1000- 
pound animal. In each case a little over one ton of bedding 



SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 



231 



was used, so that if the cows were kept in the barn all the 
time and if no manure were lost, there would have been 
nearly 15 tons of manure per 1000-pound cow. 

Much .of the year the cows are either at pasture or in the 
barnyard so that part of the manure is lost. About a ton 
of manure per cow per month is ordinarily available when 
cows are kept in the barn and turned out in the barnyard for 
a part of the day. In the Northern States 8 to 10 tons of 
manure a year, including bedding, are usually available for 
each cow or animal unit kept. 

208. Fertility of Feed Returned by Cows. The propor- 
tions of the constituents of the feed that are returned in the 
excrement are somewhat variable. A fat animal that is 
not working or giving milk returns a very large proportion 
of the food materials. A good dairy cow from the very 
fact that she is an efficient machine returns a small propor- 
tion. 

Table 27. — Proportion of Constituents of Food that Are 
Returned in the Excrement of Dairy Cows 



Deuel 



Wolff i 



Dry matter 
Organic matter 
Nitrogen . 
Ash ... 



Per Cent 

45.5 
43.3 
44.3 
63.6 



Per Cent 

43.8 
39.5 
47.5 
53.9 



R. E. Deuel determined the average results for a herd of 
46 dairy cows. These results as well as the results by Wolff 
are given in Table 27. Dairy cows return somewhat over 
40 per cent of the organic matter and nitrogen of the food 
eaten, and more than half of- the mineral matter. Dry 

1 C. M. Aikman, Manures and Manuring, pp. 227, 281. 



232 DAIRY FARMING 

COWS, or COWS that are giving little milk, often return a half 
more than these amounts. 

If one wishes organic matter to plow under to make humus, 
he can feed cows and still have 40 per cent of the humus- 
making material left. For this reason, it is usually more 
profitable to feed stock than to plow under green-manure 
crops. 

If one desires nitrogen as a fertilizer, he can feed cows, 
and still get back nearly half of the nitrogen of the feed. If 
he needs phosphorus and potassium, he can feed cows, and 
get back over half of these materials that are in the feed. 
In addition to the above all of the bedding may be recovered. 
Some of the manure may be lost, but for the time cows are 
in the barn, if the manure is reasonably well cared for, 
it is safe to estimate that over a third of the fertilizing value 
of the feeds will actually be applied to the land. 

209. Losses of Manure and their Prevention. On many 
farms the manure is allowed to lie around in the barnyard 
until a very large part of it is lost. Exposure for five months 
resulted in a loss of over half of the value of the manure. ^ 
One of the important reasons for keeping cattle is to obtain 
manure, but there is no object in this if the manure is wasted. 
If manure is kept moist enough so that it will not heat, and 
yet if neither the liquid in it nor rain water that falls on it, 
is allowed to escape, it will keep with practically no loss. 

The safest place for manure is on the land. On some farms 
it is possible to haul it every day. This is the best possible 
way to save it. When this practice is followed, it is con- 
venient to have the barn so arranged that one can drive 
through between two rows of cows that have their heads 
toward the wall. In regions where little is done except to 

1 Elements of Agriculture, G. F, Warren, p. 141. 



SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 233 

care for the cows and raise feed for them, the practice of 
daily hauhng is often best. 

If many acres of crops are grown for sale or for use in 
feeding other animals, the field work is so important that 
during much of the year one cannot afford to take the time 
to haul manure every day. There are then three ways of 
keeping the manure. It may be left in piles until it can be 
hauled, it may be kept in covered barnyards, or may be 
kept in a manure shed. 

A cheap shed with a concrete floor will keep off the rain 
and prevent the liquids from leaching away. A convenient 
way of using such a shed is to have the barn equipped with 
a manure carrier so that the manure from the cows, horses, 
and other animals, can be put in the shed. The floor of the 
shed should be two to four feet below the floor of the barn 
to increase its capacity. The writer has found that a shed 
25 feet square will ordinarily hold the manure from about 
20 animal units until the time when it can be hauled. The 
floor need not be expensive. Three inches of concrete on 
solid ground will answer all purposes. 

A better plan is to have the shed large so that cattle, hogs, 
or other stock, can run in it. This keeps the manure solid 
and makes a good covered shed. With either of the above 
plans, it is convenient to have the barn so arranged that the 
cows' heads are together. This saves time in feeding, and 
the barn can be cleaned with a manure carrier as quickly as 
if the cows faced the wall. 

The majority of farmers throw the manure in piles in the 
barnyard. The rains then wash away much of the best 
part of it. Even with this method, considerable saving can 
be made by having the eave troughs and yard drainage so 
arranged that a minimum amount of water will run through 



234 DAIRY FARMING 

the manure. In arid regions even this precaution is not 
always necessary because there may be only enough rain to 
keep the manure wet without washing it away. With this 
method of handling, it should be hauled away frequently. 
If possible, all of it should be hauled out in the winter and 
spring so that as httle as possible will be lost by summer 
rains. In August usually it can be cleaned up again. Bet- 
ter care of manure by using the covered shed method, or by 
some other method, is well worth consideration. 

210. Value of Manure. Manure is sometimes valued 
according to its chemical analysis. If purchased in com- 
mercial fertilizers, the amount of nitrogen, phosphorus, 
potassium, and calcium in a ton of manure would cost over 
%2. But what manure is worth to a farmer depends not 
on its chemical analysis but on what he is going to do with 
it. If it is to be left in the barnyard, it has no value. If 
used on some crops, it may have a very high value. On 
other crops its value is less. If applied in very large quan- 
tities, its value per ton is less than when used in moderate 
amounts. 

The good returns that often come from combining dairying 
with such intensive crops as potatoes, cabbages, hops, to- 
bacco, apples, and grapes are due partly to the high value of 
manure for growing such crops. It is just as easy by use of 
manure to increase the potato crop ten per cent as it is to 
increase a grain crop by the same proportion. But the po- 
tato crop has so much greater value per acre that the returns 
from such an increase are much more. Manure has a high 
value for growing corn and is chiefly used on that crop in 
regions where more intensive crops are not raised. 

For raising corn, small grain, and hay, manure is often 
credited to the cows at about $1 to $1.50 per ton at the barn. 



SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 235 

The cost of hauling is usually about 50 cents so that these 
figures would make the manure cost the crops $1.50 to $2 
per ton. For some new regions these figures may be high, 
but in the eastern half of the United States manure is always 
worth at least $1 per ton at the barn. Where truck crops or 
other very intensive crops are raised, it may be worth much 
more. 

211. The Value of Manure Depends on the Rate of Appli- 
cation. The Pennsylvania Experiment Station has con- 
ducted an extensive series of fertilizer and manure experi- 
ments since 1882. A four-year rotation of corn, oats, wheat, 
hay is followed. On one plot 6 tons of manure is applied 
on the corn and on the wheat. On another plot 10 tons is 
used. The check plots receive no treatment. The total 
values of the crops per acre for 32 years were as follows : ^ 

No treatment $474 

Six tons manure every other year (96 tons) ... 714 
Ten tons manure every other year (160 tons) . . 747 

When a total of 96 tons of manure was applied, the value of 
the increased crops amounted to $2.50 per ton of manure. 
An additional application of 64 more tons gave increased 
crops worth 51 cents for each additional ton. For the 
entire period of 32 years this extra manure would have 
been worth nearly five times as much per ton if applied 
at the lesser rate. If one kept 30 animal units and ob- 
tained 6 tons of manure from each one, or 180 tons per 
year, he would have 5760 tons of manure in 32 years. If 
this manure were applied at the lesser rate, the total value 
of the increased crops would be $14,400. If applied at the 
heavier rate, the same manure would have brought increased 

1 Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 90. Later data 
furnished by F. D. Gardner. 



236 DAIRY FARMING 

crops worth only $9,828. The manure would have been 
worth $4,572 more to the farmer if spread thinner. 

The land that received the heavier application is better 
for future crops but by no means is it better to the ex- 
tent of the cost of the heavier application. The best 
measure of how much better it is, is found in the results of 
the last few years. As an average for the last four years, 
the plots that had received 64 more tons of manure per acre 
gave crops worth only $8.63 more than the crops on the plots 
using the lighter application. This difference is not enough 
to give any promise of catching up. 

The same principle is shown by results at the Ohio Ex- 
periment Station. Many different experiments have been 
conducted for many years. In every case a given quantity 
of manure has given the greatest returns when spread thinly. 
One test in a three-year rotation of potatoes, wheat, clover, 
has been continued for 21 years. Manure was applied 
at the rate of 4, 8, and 16 tons on wheat. The total values 
of the crops per acre were as follows : ^ 

No treatment $782.49 

4 tons manure every three years (28 tons) . . 900.04 

8 tons manure every three years (56 tons) . . 963.17 

16 tons manure every three years (112 tons) . . 1099.31 

When a total of 28 tons of manure was applied, the in- 
creased crops were worth $4.20 per ton of manure. An ad- 
ditional application of 28 more tons of manure per acre 
gave additional crops worth $63.13, or $2.25 per ton for the 
additional manure. A still further addition of 56 more tons 
gave crops worth $2.43 per ton for the last additional manure. 

Of course the land that has received the heavier appli- 

1 Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Circular 144. Data for 1914 
supplied by C. G. Williams. 



SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 237 

cation is in better condition, but this is not enough to make 
up for the past difference in returns. Even with the fer- 
tihty left from all the previous years of treatment the plots 
that had the heaviest applications were still paying least per 
ton of manure on the twenty-first year. 

Of course if there is enough manure, the heavier applica- 
tion is very desirable, but with a limited amount it is better 
to spread it thinly. These figures also indicate the high value 
that one can assign to manure if he is keeping a small amount 
of stock. 

If a farmer had 180 tons of manure a year to apply for 21 
years under conditions like those in the Ohio experiment, 
the manure would produce increased crops worth $15,869, 
if applied at the rate of 4 tons every three years, but would 
give increased crops worth only $10,693 if applied at the rate 
of 16 tons every three years. If the manure is not wasted, 
this amount is usually available on a farm that keeps 15 cows 
in addition to the usual amount of young stock, horses, etc. 
If applied at the rate of 4 tons every three years, it would 
provide for 135 acres of crops. These are about the condi- 
tions on many 160-acre farms. 

If the manure were applied at the rate of 16 tons every 
three years, it would provide for only 34 acres of crops. 
This would be a very small farm. Another way to provide 
for the larger application would be to keep four times as 
many cows on the larger area. But this would make a very 
heavily-stocked place. 

From the above, we see that one of the strong reasons for 
keeping a moderate number of cows is the high value that 
can be obtained from the intelligent use of small applications 
of manure. One of the reasons why it may not pay to stock 
the farm too heavily is the smaller value that manure then has. 



238 DAIRY FARMING 

212. The Value of Manure Depends on the Crops on 
which it is Applied. At the Ohio Experiment Station, 8 
tons of manure was applied on wheat as compared with the 
same application on potatoes. The manure gave increased 
crops worth $3.45 per ton when applied on potatoes, but gave 
only $2.72 per ton when applied on the wheat crop. If one 
farmed 75 acres of this land with this three-year rotation 
and had 200 tons of manure to use each year, he would 
make $3066 more in twenty-one years if he applied it on the 
potatoes rather than on the wheat. 

With corn, wheat, and oats, each grown continuously on the 
same land at the Ohio Experiment Station, corn paid the best 
prices for manure, wheat next, and oats least. 

Such experiments indicate the great importance of applying 
the manure on the right crop in the rotation. They also 
indicate the great advantage of combining dairying with the 
production of such intensive crops as potatoes. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. Make a list of all the farmers you know, with the number of 
cows that they keep, and state whether or not they have a silo. 
Lists by different members of the class can be combined to make a 
cow and silo census. What proportion of the farmers who have 10 
cows or less have a silo ? What proportion of those who have 10 to 
20 cows have a silo ? What proportion of those who have over 20 ? 

2. Make a list of all the different kinds of silos of the region. Of 
as many as possible, find the cost (including labor by the farmer) 
and the cost for each ton of capacity. 

3. If any farmers have cut part of a field for silage and have 
husked part of the same field, find the yield of silage and of grain. 
How many bushels of corn in a ton of silage ? If the use of the silo 
and machinery and extra work amount to $1.00 per ton, what would 
a ton of the silage cost at the present price of corn ? 

4. Does any one in the region follow a soiling system ? 

5. Are roots raised for stock food by any farmers in this region ? 

6. What are the best legumes for the dairy farm in this region ? 



SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 239 

7. What are the common pasture plants of the region? 

8. What are the usual crops grown on the dairy farms of this 
region ? 

9. What feeds do dairy farmers in this region buy? What cash 
crops or other products are sold from dairy farms? 

10. What crop rotations are used in the region? Do they in- 
clude the types of crops that make a good cropping system? 

11. What are the usual methods of handling manure in this re- 
gion ? Is it taken out of the barns with a carrier, loaded on a wagon 
driven through the barn, or is it thrown out into the barnyard? 
Do any farmers in the region haul manure every day? Do any 
have a shed in which manure is kept? What proportion of the 
farmers clean up and haul all the manure at least twice a year? 
On what crops is the manure usually applied, and at what rate per 
acre? 

12. How many months are animals usually kept in the barn 
here ? About how many tons of manure are available for each ani- 
mal unit kept ? If possible find the tons of manure hauled by some 
farmer and number of animals kept. How many tons were there 
per animal unit? 

13. For some farm in the region find the area, acres of crops 
grown, number of each kind of animals, and crop rotation. Calcu- 
late the number of animal units and probable tons of manure avail- 
able. On which crops, how often, and at what rate would you use 
this manure? 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

35. Field Trip to a Farm. Visit one or more dairy farms. Make 
sketches of the farms, showing location of different fields. What 
crops were grown on each field last year ? What was done with the 
crops? What areas will probably be grown this year? On which 
field is the manure applied? How is the manure cared for? Is 
the pasture permanent or rotated? What are the chief plants in 
the pasture ? Is the pasture land good land for use in raising grain ? 
What disposition was made of the crops last year? Are the fields 
and pasture conveniently arranged as to size and nearness to the 
barn? What is the kind and amount of fencing? How many 
months in the year are the stock kept on pasture ? For how many 
months does the pasture furnish all the feed ? How many animal 
units are kept in the pasture ? How many acres of pasture per ani- 
mal unit ? 



CHAPTER 11 
RENTING DAIRY FARMS 

G. F. Warren 

213. Cash Rent. When cash rent is paid, the tenant usu- 
ally furnishes everything but the land. The landlord then 
has little to do with the farm. In some regions the land- 
lord furnishes the cows and rents the farm and cows. 

214. Share of Crops. In regions where grain or cotton 
is the major product, the landlord usually receives a share 
of the crop. If cows are kept, the landlord has no share in 
them. Only rarely does a good dairy farm develop under 
these conditions. The landlord is not likely to provide 
suitable buildings. The tenant justly feels that the manure 
produced by the cows he feeds increases the yield of the 
landlord's land with no expense to the landlord. 

215. Share of Receipts. In the older states the almost 
universal system of sharing the products on rented dairy 
farms is for each party to receive half of the receipts from 
all products of the farm. The landlord furnishes the land 
and does any extensive repairing of buildings. For small 
repairs to buildings and fences he usually furnishes materials, 
and the tenant does the work. He usually pays the taxes, 
pays half the seed, feed, fertilizer, threshing, silo filling, 
hay pressing, and similar bills ; and furnishes half or more 
of the cattle and other stock from which he shares the in- 
come. 

240 



RENTING DAIRY FARMS 241 

The tenant furnishes the human labor, machinery, and 
horses, and half of the other stock, and pays half of the bills 
mentioned above. He pays such bills as horseshoeing and 
machinery repairs. Each party has half of the receipts and 
owns half of the young stock raised. 

In regions where little but milk is sold, the landlord usually 
furnishes all cows (see page 244). When profitable cash 
crops are raised in addition to dairying, the tenant usually 
furnishes some of the cows (see farm, page 242). In either 
case the calves raised are usually a part of the product, to 
be divided equally. 

Many variations occur. If the chances of making a profit 
are poor, the tenant obtains concessions from the landlord. 
If the chances are good, the tenant may make concessions to 
get the place. The landlord often furnishes some machinery 
or horses, usually what he happens to own. The tenant often 
owns all the hens and receives all the product from them. 
Usually he is then required to furnish all the feed for them. 
A hog or two is often kept in the same way. If hogs are 
an important enterprise, the feed and returns are divided. 
Sometimes the landlord pays all the fertilizer bill and often 
furnishes all the grass seed. Sometimes the tenant furnishes 
all the grain for horses, and sometimes this cost is shared. 
Colts usually belong to the tenant but are sometimes shared. 

The fertility of the land, character of the buildings, quality 
of the cows, distance to market, price of milk, size of the farm, 
and many other factors must be considered before one can 
say what the exact terms of the lease should be. For the 
tenant the quality of the cows kept, the fertility of the land, 
and amount of good crop land available are more important 
than minor details in the lease. 

It seems probable that this general system of rental will 

R 



242 



DAIRY FARMING 



come to be used in most regions where dairying becomes the 
most important industry. One advantage of the system is 
that it stimulates the keeping of animals. In several counties 
where this has been studied the results show that the rented 
farms keep more live-stock per acre than do the farms oper- 
ated by owners. 

216. Examples of Rented Farms. The results on farms 
will show the method better than it can be described. 

A Successful Tenant Farm in Western New York — 193 
Acres. A Variety of Products Sold. Cows Shared 
Equally 



Capital 


Tenant 


Landlord 


Farm 


$ 500 

750 

8 

21 

400 

75 


$14,000 


Machinery and tools 

6 horses 


1 brood sow 


8 


Poultry 


21 


20 cows 


400 


Calves and bull 




75 




$1754 


$14,504 



Crops 


Acres 


Total Crop 


Corn 


4 
32 
16 
33 

4 
14 

1 
14 

8 


200 bushels 


Wheat 

Oats 


800 bushels 
560 bushels 


Timothy and clover 

Potatoes 


50 tons 
350 bushels 


Field beans 


252 bushels 


Apples 


50 bushels 


Peas for canning factory . 
Sweet corn for canning factory 
Sweet corn stalks and pea vines 


put in 


silo 


14 tons 
24 tons 



RENTING DAIRY FARMS 



243 



A Successful Tenant Farm in Western New York — Continued 





Tenant 


Landlord 


Receipts 

Milk 

Cattle sales and increased inventory . 

Poultry and eggs . 

Hogs 

Wheat 


$1000 

30 

60 

116 

343 

49 
252 

30 
175 

84 


$1000 

30 

60 

116 

343 


Oats 

Potatoes 

Beans 


168 

49 

252 


Apples 




Peas 

Sweet corn .... 




175 

84 


Expenses 

Labor 


$2139 

$ 200 

40 

150 

60 

20 

20 
10 
24 

8 
36 


$2277 


Grass seed 


$ 40 


Feed 

Fertilizer 


150 
60 


Machinery up-keep 

Harvesting 


120 


Threshing and coal 


24 


Taxes 


9 
36 


Receipts less expenses 
Interest on tenant's ca 


pital @ 5% . . 
investment . . 


$ 568 
$1571 

$ 88 


$ 439 

$1838 


Tenant's labor income 
Landlord's per cent on 


$1483 


12.7 



This farm is a large diversified business with good cows. 
Most of the feed raised and nearly half of the income is 
derived from the sale of crops. The provisions of the lease 
are the usual ones for a farm of this type. With a farm of 
this size and with good cows both parties are doing well. 



244 



DAIRY FARMING 



A Successful Tenant Farm of 190 Acres that is Highly 
Specialized. The Landlord Furnishes all the Cows 



CaPITALi 



Farm 

Machinery and tools 
Feed and supplies . 

Cows 

Heifers and calves . 
BuU ...... 

5 horses .... 

Colt 

Hog 

Hens 

Turkeys .... 




Landlord 



$13,300 
375 
300 
1,725 
210 
200 
175 



80 



$16,365 



Crops 



Silage corn .... 
Timothy and clover hay 

Oats 

Mangels 

Potatoes 

Orchard and garden 




Total Crop 



188 tons 
78 tons 

1200 bushels 
250 bushels 
120 bushels 



Receipts 

Hay 

MUk . 

Cattle sales and increased inventory 

Hides 

Colt increased inventory .... 

Outside work 

Hogs 

Eggs 

Poultry 




Landlord 



178 

1239 

165 

1 



33 
25 

$1641 



RENTING DAIRY FARMS 



245 





Tenant 


Landlord 


Expenses 

Labor 


$ 400 
30 

76 

4 
15 
10 

8 
10 

5 
10 
66 




Machinery up-keep 

Building up-keep 

Feed . 

Silo filling 


$ 50 
76 
45 


Ice 


4 


Horseshoeing 

Stallion service 

Grass seed 

Twine 


38 

8 


Threshing 

Fuel for threshing and silo filling . . 
Insurance 


10 

5 

10 


Taxes 


66 


Interest on tenant's capital at 5% . . . 
Landlord's per cent on investment . . 


$ 634 
$1125 
$ 60 
$1065 


$ 312 
$1329 

8.1 



QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. What are the usual systems of renting in your region? 

2. Do the systems of rental encourage the keeping of stock? 
Do tenant farms have as much stock as farms operated by owners ? 

3. Make a list of all the persons you can find who have re- 
cently changed from hired man to tenant. On the average how 
many years did they spend as hired men? 

4. Make a list of as many persons as possible who have changed 
from tenant to owner in the past few years. On the average how 
many years have they been tenants ? 

5. Write a lease that seems to you to be fair to both parties and 
that gives a reasonable consideration to maintenance of the fertility 
of the land. 

COLLATERAL READING 

Farm Management, G. F. Warren, pp. 321-329. 
Cyclopedia of Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. IV, pp. 170-185. 
Farm Leases in Iowa, Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, 
Bulletin 159. 



CHAPTER 12 

COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF 
MARKETING 

G. F. Warren 

Cost of Production 

217. Cost of Producing Milk. Reliable figures on the cost 
of keeping cows are available for two regions that repre- 
sent decidedly different dairy conditions. 

Delaware County, near New York City, is a hilly region 
where the pasture season is short. Practically all grain is 
purchased. Because of the nearness to large cities, hay is 
very high in price. In this county the average cost per cattle 
unit for over six thousand cows was $99. The year whose 
records are here quoted was one of unusually high feed prices 
even for the region. In the following year the cost was $88. 
All the costs of keeping the cows and of the calves raised 
were charged directly to the cows, raising calves being one 
means of offsetting depreciation on cows. How near these 
two balance in this region is shown by the fact that the re- 
turns from cattle and hides sold were only $1 per cow above 
the amounts spent for cattle purchased. This region is fairly 
typical for New England and for hilly regions in other states 
near the large eastern cities. 

Rice County, Minnesota, represents a region of very low- 
priced feed. The figures were obtained several years ago 
when feed was cheaper than it is to-day. Hay is worth less 

246 



COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 247 

than one-third as much as in regions Uke Delaware County, 
near New York City. Because of the very low price of feed, 
the average cost of keeping a cow was only $60. 

Table 28. — Cost of Producing Milk 



Quantities 

Pounds grain fed 

Hours human labor .... 
Pounds milk produced per cow . 
Pounds butter-fat per cow . . 

Costs 

Feed 

Bedding 

Buildings 

Dairy equipment 

Interest 

Human labor 

Horse labor 

Hauling milk 

Bull cost 

Depreciation 

Miscellaneous 

Less cattle increase and net sales 
Total cost 



Delaware 
Co.i N. Y., 
6422 Cows 



Per Cattle Unit 

1662 

130 
4514 

208 



$66.60 

.75 

4.41 

.41 

2.94 

18.26 

.20 

5.01 



.91 
.92 



,57 



Rice C0.2 
Minn. 



Per Cow 

864 

133 

5252 

188 



$27.50 

4 

2.46 

.58 

2.35 

18.66 

1.98 
3.19 

3.28 



$60.00 



It will be observed that the costs other than feed are al- 
most exactly the same in the two regions. The average 
costs other than feed for keeping cows under farm conditions 
vary widely on different farms, but in the great majority of 
cases for grade herds are between $30 and $40 per cow. In 

^ Report of the Proceedings of the American Farm Management Asso- 
ciation, November, 1913. 

2 Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 124. 

3 This item included elsewhere. * Charge for this item not given. 



248 



DAIRY FARMING 



pure-bred herds the costs are usually much more. Next to 
feed, labor is the most important cost. The importance of 
having the farm and buildings so arranged as to facilitate 
work is at once apparent. 

Table 29. — Cost of Producing Milk on New York Farms ^ 





Grade 


Herds 


Pure-bred Herds 




1913 


1914 


1913 


1914 


Quantities 










Number herds .... 


17 


8 


5 


4 


Number cows .... 


297.5 


189.6 


110.5 


85.5 


Number cows per herd . 


17.5 


23.7 


22.1 


21.4 


Number cattle units per 










herd 


23.9 


30.9 


32.8 


36.3 


Average value of cows 


$71.10 


$70.31 


$215.90 


$268.89 


Pounds milk per cow 


6185 


5584 


7000 


7388 


Value milk per cow 


$99.46 


$86.42 


$107.70 


$105.10 


Pounds grain per cattle 










unit ....... 


1551 


1479 


2339 


2295 


Pounds dry forage per 










cattle unit 


3028 


2480 


3216 


3200 


Pounds silage per cattle 










unit 


6554 


5540 


6791 


8980 


Hours man labor per 










cattle unit .... 


116 


100 


161 


183 


Costs per cattle unit 










Grain 


$22.71 


$18.99 


$34.18 


$34.24 


Dry forage 


17.76 


12.90 


23.00 


16.88 


Silage, etc 


12.90 


11.74 


14.33 


17.47 


Pasture 


4.96 


4.43 


4.52 


4.15 


Bedding 


2.22 


1.33 


2.55 


2.70 


Man labor ..... 


• 19.26 


16.63 


27.86 


30.78 


Horse labor 


2.64 


3.77 


3.22 


2.31 


Equipment labor . . . 


.91 


.76 


.97 


.79 


Interest 


3.55 


2.95 


11.21 


15.90 


Buildings 


2.81 


2.04 


2.34 


3.27 


Breeding fees .... 


.003 


.36 


8.21 


1.76 


Veterinary and medicine 


.20 


.09 


.55 


.59 


Miscellaneous .... 


2.13 


1.95 


6.92 


10.16 



* New York State Department of Agriculture, Circular 130, p. 82. 



COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 249 

Table 29. — .Cost of Producing Milk on New York Farms — 

Continued 





Grade Herds . 


Pure-bred Herds 




1913 


1914 


1913 


1914 


Summary 

Feed ....... 

Man labor . . . . . 

All else . . . . . . 


$58.33 

19.26 
14.46 


$48.06 
16.63 
13.25 


$76.03 

27.86 
35.97 


$72.74 
30.78 
37.48 


Total 
Returns per cattle unit 

Milki 

Increase and net sales . . 

Manure 

Miscellaneous .... 


$92.05 

$72.81 

18.02 

10.59 

.39 


$77.94 

$66.24 
13.37 

7.87 
.06 


$139.86 

$72.61 

87.01 

10.11 

1.79 


$141.00 

$61.73 

90.47 

10.12 

1.95 


Total 

Profit per cattle unit . . . 


$101.81 
$9.76 


$87.54 
$9.60 


$171.52 
$31.66 


$164.27 
$23.27 



From these costs the value of the manure should be de- 
ducted to find the returns that the average farmer would 
have to get in order to make a profit on cows. For Rice 
County the value of the calf would also have to be deducted. 
This value is included in the Delaware County figures. 

Accurate results of cost accounts on a number of New York 
farms including 673 cows are given in Table 29. These 
farms were not especially selected but are somewhat larger 
and better managed than the average farm. Most of them 
were located in parts of the state where feed is somewhat 
cheaper than in Delaware County. The accounts are with 
the entire dairy herd considered as a unit. 

For the grade herds there is a surprisingly close agree- 
ment with Table 28 as to costs other than feed. The pure- 
bred herds cost more in every way, but the returns are more 

^ Notice that this is total milk divided by the number of cattle units. 
The value of the milk per cow is given above. 



250 



DAIRY FARMING 



than enough to cover the greater cost. The pure-bred herds 
on the average pay best. 

218. Cost of Raising Heifers. The cost of raising heifers 
on a Wisconsin farm that raised about twenty a year was kept 
for five years. The food costs to raise a heifer to two years of 
age varied from $39 to $42. The total costs varied from $60 
to $65 in different years. The average cost of raising one 
group of about twenty heifers is given in Table 30. To these 
costs the value of the heifer at birth should be added and the 
value of the manure produced in the barn subtracted. Of 
course, the exact figures should not be expected to apply to 
another farm, but the comparative costs are worth studying. 

Table 30. — Average Cost of Raising Jersey Heifers to Two 
Years Old on a Wisconsin Farm ^ 



Quantities used 
Whole milk, lb. . 
Skim-milk, lb. . 
Grain, lb. . . . 
Silage, lb. . . . 
Mixed hay, lb, . 
Corn stover, lb. . 
Days pasture 
Hours man labor 

Costs 

Feed .... 
Bedding . . . 
Labor .... 
Interest 
Buildings 
Equipment 
Loss by discarding 
Miscellaneous 
Total 



Raising to 
1 Year Old 



342 

3165 

547 

353 

857 

123 

40 



$24.58 
1.00 
5.14 
1.12 
1.57 
.55 

1.99 



Second Year 



3250 

1120 

672 

171 

23 



$16.11 
2.00 
2.86 
2.53 

.81 



.42 
1.38 



55.95 



11 



Total 2 Years 



342 
3165 

547 
3603 
1977 

672 

294 
63 



$40.69 
3.00 
8.00 
3.65 
2.38 
.55 
.42 
3.37 



$62.06 



1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 49. 



COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 251 

The quantities of feed used in growing heifers at the Ohio 
Experiment Station and estimated costs are given in Tables 




Fig. 77. — The heifers for which the costs of production are here 
given in Table 30. 

31 and 32. These heifers were fed a little more whole milk 
and were fed over twice as much grain as the ones men- 
tioned above. The costs were therefore higher.^ 

The costs other than feed vary from $21 to $28 in the dif- 
ferent results here quoted. The feed costs vary from $41 to 
$ 58. In the States east of Ohio feed is higher in price, so that 
this cost is likely to be more. In some irrigated regions where 
alfalfa hay is very cheap, the feed cost may be lower. 
Where skim-milk is not available the feed cost is somewhat 
higher, but need not be prohibitive, as is shown on pages 116 
to 118. 

1 Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 289. 



252 



DAIRY FARMING 



Table 31. — Cost of Raising 29 Jersey Heifers at the Ohio 

Experiment Station. 

Average weights ; at birth 55 lb. ; at one year 472 lb. ; at 2 years 

758 lb. 





Raising to 
1 Year Old 


Second Year 


Total 2 Years 


Quantities used 

Whole milk, lb 

Skim-milk, lb 

Grain, lb 

Silage, lb 

Hay, lb 

Stover, lb ... . 
Days pasture .... 

Costs 

Feed . . 

Other costs estimated 


469 
2918 
564 
444 
767 
37 
118 

$27.39 
12.79 


87 

785 
2426 
1038 

254 

159 

$27.12 

14.89 


469 
3005 
1349 
2870 
1805 

291 

277 

$54.51 

27.68 


Total 


$40.18 


$42.01 


$82.19 



Table 32. — Cost of Raising 22 Holstein Heifers at the 
Ohio Experiment Station. 

Average weights ; at birth 82 lb. ; at 1 year 571 lb. ; at 2 years 

962 lb. 



Quantities used 

Whole milk, lb. . . 
Skim-milk, lb. . . 

Grain, lb 

Silage, lb 

Hay, lb." .... 
Stover, lb . . . 
Days pasture . . 

Costs 

Feed 

Other costs estimated 

Total 



Raising to 
1 Year Old 



445 
2661 
647 
656 
796 
11 
121 



.57 
12.79 



$41.36 



Second Year 



174 
870 
2247 
1419 
232 
151 



.55 
14.89 



$44.44 



Total 2 Years 



445 
2835 
1517 
2903 
2215 
243 
272 



$58.12 
27.68 



$85.80 



COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 253 

Marketing Dairy Products 

219. Ways of Marketing. The milk supply in many small 
towns and cities is retailed by dairymen who produce part 
or all of the milk that they sell. There are some oppor- 
tunities for retailing milk in regions where dairying is not a 
general industry. Such regions are likely to have beef or 
dual-purpose cattle, and the farmers are not likely to know 
how to care for a dairy animal. One who has good cows and 
who knows how to care for them often has a good opportu- 
nity in such a town. Every town that is near to farm land 
offers an opportunity for some retail dairyman. Some- 
times there are too many in the business so that the business 
will not pay for the time spent, but retailing frequently offers 
a good chance for an energetic man. 

Many farmers make butter to retail in a near-by town or 
to be shipped by parcel post. The prices received are some- 
times enough to make this a good method of selling. 

The great majority of dairymen have to sell on a general 
market at prices fixed by the purchaser. Sometimes the 
conditions are such that the selling part of the business calls 
for httle thought, but often there are some points to study. 
Cooperation in ■ hauling milk is often a great saving of 
time. 

If the price of milk varies with the fat content, the farmer 
should be able to estimate which is the best kind of milk to 
produce. If he has more than one market, he should be able 
to make similar estimates. In regions where market milk 
sells for so much that one cannot afford to sell the product in 
any other way, one often sees farmers who persist in selhng 
butter-fat or butter long after this has ceased to be the best 
practice. 



254 DAISY FARMING 

220. Value of Skim-milk in Cities. When milk is sold to 
the creamery, the fat basis is, of course, the proper basis of 
payment. Argument is often made that payment for market 
milk should be on the same basis. The public is often ac- 
cused of ignorance because it refuses to pay for milk in pro- 
portion to the fat contained. 

For human food, protein is probably the most important 
constituent of milk. How much the cities are willing to 
pay for sldm-milk is shown by the high price that they are 
willing to pay for milk when they could get the same butter- 
fat in cream at much less cost. If the other constituents 
were in proportion to the fat, then the percentage of fat 
would be in proportion to the value as human food, but 
the richness in protein does not increase so rapidly as 
the fat. 

Common retail prices in New York City are 9 cents for 
milk, 40 cents per quart for 23 per cent cream, and 38 cents 
per pound for butter. ^ On the average, milk contains about 
3.7 per cent fat. At these prices the butter-fat costs 
about $1.13 per pound in milk, 82 cents in .cream, and 44 
cents in butter. 

Evidently, milk is not purchased merely for its butter-fat, 
else butter-fat in cream would sell at the same price that it 
does in milk. The value that the public places on fat, as 
measured by the price of cream, shows that about 27 per cent 
of the amount paid for milk is paid for food that is contained 
in the skim-milk. Stated in another way, if the value of the 
fat is measured by the price of cream, then the fat in a quart 
of milk is worth 6.5 cents, and the skim-milk sells for 2.5 
cents. Or, if the fat in milk is considered to have the same 

^ Prices furnished by the Borden Company and verified from several 
other sources. 



COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 255 

value as the fat in butter, then the fat in a quart of milk is 
worth 3.5 cents, and the skim-milk sells for 5.5 cents. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. For each of the regions given in Tables 28 and 29 find the feed 
cost and all other costs and the per cent that the feed cost is of the 
total cost. Compare the feed costs in the different regions. 

2. At the prices of feeds in this region, find the approximate 
value of the feed required to feed a cow, as given in Table 28. 

3. What per cent is the feed of the total cost of raising heifers, 
as given in Table 30. 

4. At prices of feed and milk in this region, find the approxi- 
mate value of the feed used to raise a heifer, as given in Table 30. 

5. Using the weights given on page 298, how many pounds are 
there in one gallon of milk? In one gallon of 35 per cent cream? 
How many quarts in 100 pounds of milk? In 100 pounds of 20 per 
cent cream? 

6. In what proportion should milk testing 3.2 per cent fat and 
milk testing 4.5 per cent fat be mixed to make milk testing 4 per 
cent ? 

7. Using figures from page 298, how much dry matter is there in 
40 quarts of skim-milk? In 100 pounds? 

8. Some animal food is necessary for good success with hens. 
Meat scrap is often purchased for this purpose at about $3 per 
hundred pounds. It is also fed to hogs. It contains about 90 per 
cent dry matter, but the dry matter is not so valuable as that in 
skim-milk. If the dry matter in skim-milk is worth the same as 
that in meat scrap, what would 100 pounds of skim-milk be worth ? 
What would it be worth per quart ? 

9. A farmer is offered 30 cents a pound for butter-fat, or $1.30 
per hundred for whole milk. His average test is 3.8 per cent. 
Which is the higher price ? Would the skim-milk be worth the dif- 
ference as feed for hogs or poultry? 

10. What would be received for 100 pounds of 4 per cent milk 
when sold at each of the following prices : 

a. 3 cents per quart? 

6. $1.50 per 100 pounds? 

c. 35 cents per pound for butter-fat ? 

d. 30 cents per pound for butter ? 



256 



DAIRY FARMING 



Considering the value of skim-milk and the labor of making 
butter, which would be the best way to sell? 

11. The prices paid for milk by the Borden Company from April, 
1915, to March, 1916, were as follows, in the region where the freight 
to New York is 26 cents per 40-quart can. 



Butter-fat 



April . , 
May . . . 
June . . 
July . . . 
August . 
September 
October 
November , 
December . 
January 
February . 
March . . 



3.0 



1.31 
1.06 
1.00 
1.16 
1.32 
1.41 
1.70 
1.80 
1.80 
1.70 
1.65 
1.60 



3.5 



1.46 
1.21 
1.15 
1.31 
1.47 
1.56 
1.85 
1.95 
1.95 
1.85 
1.80 
1.75 



4.0 



1.61 
1.36 
1.30 
1.46 
1.62 
1.71 
2.00 
2.10 
2.10 
2.00 
1.95 
1.90 



4.5 



1.76 
1.51 
1.45 
1.61 
1.77 
1.86 
2.15 
2.25 
2.25 
2.15 
2.10 
2.05 



5.0 



1.91 
1.66 
1.60 
1.76 
1.92 
2.01 
2.30 
2.40 
2.40 
2.30 
2.25 
2.20 



The above prices will be paid to dairymen where they maintain, 
during this contract, conditions scoring not less than 25 per cent on 
equipment and 43 per cent on methods, according to the New York 
Department of Health Score Card, as scored by the Company's rep- 
resentatives. Dairymen scoring less than 25 per cent on equip- 
ment and 43 per cent on methods, will receive ten cents per 100 
pounds less than the above schedule. Milk of intermediate com- 
position was paid for at corresponding prices. 

Calculate the average price for the year for milk with each 
per cent of fat. 

What is the average price for fat in 3 per cent milk ? What is 
paid per pound for the additional fat in 4 per cent milk ? In 5 per 
cent milk? What is the price for the additional fat above 3 per 
cent in all cases ? 

12. If sMm-milk is worth as much as found in problem 8, at what 
price would butter have to be sold to bring as much as the average 
price paid by the Borden Company for 3 per cent milk ? For 5 per 
cent milk? 

13. Using the average production given on page 42, what would 
be the value of the milk for one .year for a cow of each breed ? 



COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 257 

14. Find the average price paid at retail in a near-by city for 
butter, cream with known fat content, and milk. What price is 
paid for fat in each form? 

COLLATERAL READING 

Farm Management, G. F. Warren, pp. 440-493. 
U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 49. 



CHAPTER 13 

OTHER IMPORTANT FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN 

DAIRY FARMING 

G. F. Warren 

Ways of Measuring Profits 

221. The Most Important Factors for Success. In a dairy 
region the most important factors have been shown to be 
the size of the business, the returns per cow, the crop yields, 
and the diversity of the business.^ Many other factors have 
to do with financial success, but on careful examination it will 
be found that most of them are covered by the above. For 
instance, nothing is said about the effective use of labor, but 
the most important single factor controlling such use is the 
size of the business. The following are some of the many 
other factors that cause minor variations in profit on many 
farms and that sometimes become the most important factors. 
Too much or too little capital may be invested in buildings 
or stock. Too many or too few men or horses may be kept. 
The region or farm may not be adapted to dairying. The 
wrong kind of product for the region may be sold. The 
barns and fields may be so arranged as to aid in the work, 
or they may cause a loss of time. Other things being 
equal, large cows pay better than small ones. 

222. Ways of Measuring Profit. Two things are at work 
on a farm — money and men. To be called a financial suc- 

1 Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 349. 

258 



FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 259 

cess any business should pay a reasonable rate of interest on 
the capital invested and, in addition, pay fair wages for the 
labor used. The best way to measure profits on a farm is first 
to find the difference between the receipts and the business 
expenses for a year, including in expenses all labor except 
the owner's. This difference represents the pay for the use 
of the capital and for the owner's time. The interest on 
the money invested in the business calculated at 5 per cent, 
or at the current rate of interest, should be subtracted from 
the income from capital and owner's labor to get the amount 
left to pay for his time. This is called his labor income. The 
following averages from 73 farms in Illinois show the method 
of figuring : ^ 

Average capital $51,091 

Average receipts 5,042 

Average farm expenses 1,866 

Income from capital and owner's labor 3,176 

Interest on capital at 5 per cent . . 2,555 

Owner's labor income 621 

Size of Business 

223. Size of Business. In order to be most economically 
manpged, a dairy farm should be large enough to provide 
full use for a reasonable equipment of modern machinery. 
This does not mean that it should be one of the great costly 
and money-losing establishments that are often maintained 
by wealthy men. But it does mean that a farm is working at 
a disadvantage if it is not large enough to provide work for 
two or three persons. Just how many acres this will require 
depends on the richness of the land and on what is done with 
the milk. A small area of land that will naturally grow two 
tons of hay and fifty bushels of corn per acre will represent 

1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 41, p. 9. 



260 



DAIRY FARMING 



as large a business as many more acres of poor soil. If milk 
is sold at retail, a smaller area and smaller number of cows 
may represent an equally large business. But even when milk 
is sold at retail, it is very desirable to have 15 to 30 cows. 

How important a reasonable area of land is to a dairy 
farmer is shown by the results from 1988 farms in New York 
as given in Table 33. 

Table 33. — Relation of Size of Farm to Labor Income. 1988 
Farms, Tompkins, Livingston, and Jefferson Counties, 
New York 



Acres 


Number of 
Farms 


Average 

Number of 

Acres per 

Farm 


Average 

Acres of 

Crops 


Average 
Labor 
Income 


30 or less .... 

31-50 

51-100 

101-150 

151-200 

Over 200 . . . . 


74 
141 
616 
572 
304 
281 


22 

44 

79 

126 

177 

281 


14 
25 
40 
66 
89 
134 


$121 
252 
402 

568 
776 
995 



These farms are fairly typical of many of the dairy farms 
from Dakota to New England. About half the farm is 
devoted to hay, corn, small grain, and other farm crops. 
The other half is pasture, or woods and waste land. The 
farms of less than 100 acres are on the average not paying 
the owner more than interest and hired man's wages. There 
are of course some small farms that pay well, but, as a rule, 
the larger farms pay better. Similar results have been ob- 
tained in many other states. 

224. Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of 
Labor. In every region where such studies have been made 
the small farms accompUsh much less per man than do the 



FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 



261 



fair-sized farms. Table 34 gives results for one county. 
The average number of men per farm as given in the table 
includes all human labor. Work of women and children is 
expressed in terms of the number of men that would have 
been required to do the same work. On the smallest farms, 
very little work was done by any one except the operator. 
On the farms of over 200 acres, the hired labor and labor by 
members of the family amounted to the time of one and one- 
third men, or, counting the time of the farmer, these farms 
had the equivalent of 2.35 men. 

The farms of less than 30 acres had an average of 3.5 animal 
units per farm besides work horses. Those of over 200 acres 
had an average of 34.2 animal units besides work horses. 

The producing enterprises on most farms are the acres of 
crops grown and the animals other than horses. 

Table 34. — Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the 
Use of Labor. 670 Farms, Jefferson County, New York 









Average 






Acres 


Average 
Man 

Equiva- 
lent 


Average 

Acres of 

Crops 


Number 

OF Animal 

Units 

except 

Work 

Horses 


Acres of 
Crops 

PER Man 


Animal 
Units 

EXCEPT 

Horses 
PER Man 


30 or less . . . 


1.04 


14 


3.5 


13 


3 


31-50 . . . 


1.18 


25 


7.9 


21 


7 


51-100 . . . 


1.34 


40 


13.2 


30 


10 


101-150 . . . 


1.61 


66 


19.4 


41 


12 


151-200 . . . 


1.98 


89 


25.1 


45 


13 


Over 200 . . . 


2.35 


134 


34.2 


57 


15 



The acres of crops grown, the yields of these crops, the 
number of producing animals, and the production of these 
animals are a measure of the amount that is being accom- 
pUshed on a farm. The crop yields and the production of 



262 DAIRY FARMING 

animals are no better on the small farms than on the large 
farms, hence the acres of crops and the animals kept are a 
fairly accurate measure of the amount accomplished. The 
acres of crops raised per man varied from 13 on the small 
farms to 57 on the largest farms. The number of animal 
units per man varied from 3 on the small farms to 15 on the 
largest farms (Table 34). 

225. Relation of Size of Farm to Work Done. From cost 
accounts and other records, we know approximately how 
much time it takes to do each kind of farm work under 
normal conditions. The raising of a wheat crop ordinarily 
takes 15 to 25 hours of man labor and 20 to 40 hours of horse 
labor per acre. With anything like efficient methods of work, 
20 hours of man labor and 30 hours of horse labor per acre is 
sufficient. Many farmers do better than this. We may 
therefore say that a wheat crop represents two days of man 
work and three days of horse work. If much more time than 
this is spent, the work is not efficiently done. This may be 
because the fields are too small, because of poor machinery, 
because the land is unusually hard to work, or for other 
reasons. It matters not why time is lost. If it is lost, the 
farm is not efficient. 

Similarly the average farmer spends about 150 hours of 
work per year on a cow. If the barn or pasture is unhandy, 
or if he has only a half-dozen cows, more time may be re- 
quired. Some farmers who get good returns spend less time. 
To care for a cow for a year may be counted as about 15 
days' work (see Table 35). 

In order to compare farms, all the productive enterprises 
are similarly expressed in work units. The income of the 
farm is dependent on the crops raised, the cows and other 
productive animals kept, the outside work done for pay. 



FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 263 



Table 35. — Units of Productive Work 



Timotliy, alfalfa, clover, per acre per cutting 
Oats, wheat, barley, rye, buckwheat, per acre 
Corn husked from standing stalks, per acre , 
Corn husked from shock, per acre .... 

Corn for silo, per acre 

Field beans, per acre 

Cotton, per acre 

Tobacco, per acre 

Potatoes, cabbage, beets, per acre .... 
Peas for canning factory, per acre .... 

Hops, per acre 

Apples, peaches, pears, bearing per acre . . 

Dairy cow 

10 cattle or colts running loose 

10 brood sows, and raising pigs to weaning . 

50 hogs, not brood sows 

100 ewes 

100 hens 

Raising 200 chickens 



Man 
Work 
Units 


Horse 
Work 

Units 


1 


1 


2 


3 


3 


5 


6 


6 


5 


6 


4 


5 


12 


6 


20 


7 


10 


10 


3 


5 


20 


8 


15 


5 


15 


2 


20 


1 


30 


5 


25 


5 


50 


3 


15 


2 


15 


2 



Table 36. — Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the 
Use of Men and Horses. 670 Farms, Jefferson County, 
New York 







Units of Pro- 


Units op Pro- 




Acres 


ductive Work 


ductive Work 






PER Man 


PER Horse 


30 or less . 




102 


35 


31-50 . . 




154 


41 


51-100. . 




205 


57 


101-150 . . 




245 


62 


151-200 . . 




253 


65 


Over 200 . 




294 


76 



264 



DAIRY FARMING 



Much other work may be done, such as repairing machinery 
and buildings, taking care of work horses, mowing the lawn, 
and the hke, but it is the productive work that limits the 
income. 

On farms in Jefferson County, New York, the average 
amount of productive work per man varied from 102 work 
units on the small farms to 294 on the largest farms. Each 
man on the largest farms is accomplishing nearly three times 
as much work as a man on the small farms. It must be 
remembered also that the crop yields and the returns per cow 
are as good on the larger farms. Each horse on the large 
farms is accomplishing twice as much as each horse on the 
small farms. The farms of less than 100 acres are very waste- 
ful of both man and horse labor. 

Table 37. — Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the 
Use of Horses. 1248 Farms, Jefferson and Livingston 
Counties, New York 



ACKES 


Number 
OF Farms 


Acres of 
Crops 


Number 

OF 

Horses 


Acres op 

Crops 
per Horse 


30 or less 


42 


14.2 


1.5 


9.5 


31-50 


64 


28.4 


2.3 


12.3 


51-100 


315 


46.8 


3.1 


15.1 


101-150 


364 


73.5 


4.2 


17.5 


151-200 


226 


98.7 


5.0 


19.7 


Over 200 . 


237 


152.8 


7.2 


21.2 



226. Relation of Size of Farm to Eflaciency in the Use of 
Horses. The discussion given above is the best way of com- 
paring horse labor. Another comparison is shown in Table 
37. On the large farms, twice as many acres of crops are 
raised per horse as on the small farms. The average cost of 
keeping a horse, as shown by cost accounts, is about $100 to 



FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 



265 



$175 a year in different parts of the United States. This 
includes feed, labor, depreciation, and all other costs. From 
this the importance of the efficient use of horses is apparent. 
227. Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of 
Machinery. The small farms are very inadequately equipped 
with machinery, as is shown in Table 38. Even the 

Table 38. — Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the 
Use of Machinery. 1248 Farms, Livingston and Jeffer- 
son Counties, New York 



Acres 


Acres op 
Crops 


Value op 
Machinery 


Value op 

Machinery 

per Acre 

OP Crops 


30 or less 


14.2 


$141 


$9.93 


31-50 


28.4 


207 


7.29 


51-100 


46.8 


426 


9.10 


101-150 


73.5 


497 


6.76 


151-200 


98.7 


613 


6.21 


Over 200 


152.8 


833 


5.45 



farms of over 200 acres have an investment in machinery of 
only $833. This represents machinery of all ages. Prob- 
ably the cost when new would be over twice as much, but 
even this sum will not provide all the well-established ma- 
chines, such as a grain-binder and manure-spreader for each 
farm. But, while the small farms are not well equipped, 
their machinery cost per acre of crops is almost double that 
on the larger farms. 

228. Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of 
Capital. The small farm has relatively much more of its 
capital invested in unproductive ways than does the large 
farm. No matter how small the farm may be, the owner 
desires a respectable house. Table 39 shows that the small- 



266 



DAIRY FARMING 



est farms have 43 per cent of their capital in houses ; the 
largest farms have somewhat better houses, but have only 
9 per cent of their capital thus invested. 

Table 39. — Area Related to Investment in Buildings. 578 
Farms, Livingston County, New York 



Acres 


Value of 
Houses 


Per Cent 

of Total 

Capital 

in Houses 


Value 
OF Other 
Buildings 


Per Cent 
OF Total 
Capital 
IN Other 
Buildings 


Value 
OP Other 
Buildings 
PER Ani- 
mal Unit 


30 or less . . . 

31- 50 ... 

51-100 . . . 
101-150 . . . 
151-200 . . . 
Over 200 . . . 


$1494 
1000 
1236 
1477 
1810 
2113 


43 
23 
18 
14 
13 
9 


$ 655 
681 
1091 
1408 
1900 
2552 


19 
15 
16 
13 
13 
11 


$164 
95 
87 
74 
73 
50 



The barns on the small farms also take a much larger 
proportion of the capital. The smallest farms have 19 per 
cent of their capital thus invested, the largest farms have 
only 11 per cent thus tied up. A barn for ten head of stock 
costs much more than half as much as an equally good barn 
for twenty head of stock. The smallest farms have an 
investment in barns of $164 per animal unit. The largest 
farms have only $50 per animal unit. Yet observations lead 
to the conclusion that the stock on the larger places is better 
housed. If interest, repairs, depreciation, and insurance on 
a building amount to 8 per cent of the value, then the housing 
cost per animal unit will vary from $13 per year on the small- 
est farms to $4 per year on the largest. 

Similar results for the United States are shown in Table 
40. These indicate, as for other points in this work, that 
the results are of general rather than local application. The 



FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 



267 



farms of less than 20 acres have 36 per cent of their capital 
invested in buildings and machinery. Those of 100 to 174 
acres have only 17 per cent of the money thus invested, yet 
they have much better buildings and more machinery. 
Money thus employed not only is unproductive, but it is a 
source of constant cost for repairs. If a farmer had all his 
money invested in buildings and machinery, his income 
would, of course, be zero. In fact, he would not be a farmer 
at all. 

Table 40. — Area Related to Investment in Buildings and 
Machinery, for United States, 1909, from the Census 
Report 



Per Cent 
OF Capi- 
AcREs Buildings "^ . y^^^^" Machin- tal in 

Machin- 
ery 



Under 20 

20- 49 

50- 99 

100-174 

175-499 

500-999 

1000 or over 



Value of 
Buildings 
per Farm 


Per Cent 
OP Capi- 
tal IN 
Buildings 


Value of 
Machin- 
ery 


$ 605 


34 


$ 56 


474 


21 


76 


848 


19 


156 


1182 


14 


241 


1734 


10 


390 


2174 


8 


639 


3330 


5 


1196 



2.5 
2.8 
3.1 
2.7 
2.4 
2.4 
1.0 



229. Size of the Herd. In regions where very little ex- 
cept dairy products is sold, the number of cows kept is the 
best measure of the size of the business. Table 41 gives 
results from such a region in Jefferson County, New York, 
and shows that farmers who have herds of 20 or more cows 
are doing very much better than those who have smaller 
herds. In fact, the size of the herd is as important as the 
quality of the cows. The usual advice to sell the poorest 
cows and keep only the best ones should be changed to the 
more practical advice to replace the poorest cows by good 



268 



DAIRY FARMING 



ones, rather than leave half of the barn empty. A cow that 
is much too poor to keep may yet pay as well as an empty 
stanchion. Of course, if the farm has too many cows for its 
area, it will pay to sell the poorest ones and decrease the 
number. In regions like Jefferson County that are well 
adapted to dairying and not adapted to many other things, 
herds of 20 to 30 cows when kept on farms that are large 
enough for the herd, are usually more profitable than small 
herds. Of course the number of cows should not be increased 
out of proportion to the farm. On the other hand extremely 
large herds are a disadvantage because the farm family is 
ordinarily not able to do the work and too much labor must 
be hired. 

Table 41. — Relation of Number of Cows and Milk Sold 
PER Cow TO Labor Income. 585 Farms, Jefferson 
County, New York 



Milk Sold per Cow 



Less than $50 
$51-75 . . 
76-100 . . 
Over 100 . . 



Number of Cows 



6-10 



Labor Income 

$632 
447 
599 
760 



11-20 



Labor Income 

$ 481 

704 

836 

1054 



Over 20 



Labor Income 

$1046 
1093 
1249 
1959 



230. Summary of Size of Dairy Farms. Unless a dairy 
farm keeps four or five horses, it cannot take advantage of 
the great economy in human labor that comes from the use 
of four-horse machinery. But each horse ought to raise 
20 to 30 acres of crops so that this calls for 80 or more 
acres of crops. If 25 cows and young stock are kept, 
there will usually need to be 60 to 100 acres of pasture. 
This calls for 140 to 200 acres of land, a very common size 



FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 269 

in most of the dairy regions of the United States. The aver- 
age size of farms among subscribers to Hoard's Dairyman 
was reported to be 167 acres. In some of the rich irrigated 
valleys the pastures and alfalfa are so productive that a 
considerably smaller area provides an equally large business. 
In some very fertile regions Hke Lancaster County, Pennsyl- 
vania, where very intensive crops are combined with dairying, 
a farm of 60 to 80 acres represents as large a business as two 
or three times this area in some regions. 

Not every dairyman has money enough to buy a farm of 
the best size, but there are other ways of obtaining land. 
The usual steps in becoming a farm owner are : first, to work 
as a hired man ; then to become a tenant ; then own a mort- 
gaged farm ; and finally pay off the mortgage. Only 36 per 
cent of the farmers in the United States own free from mort- 
gage all the land that they operate. If one who has too 
small a farm knows how to farm and how to live economically, 
he will often find it profitable to go in debt to buy more 
land. A mortgage is not necessarily a bad thing. The im- 
portant point to consider is the use to which the borrowed 
money is put. It may not be wise to mortgage a farm for 
the purpose of buying an automobile, but it may be good 
business to mortgage it to buy additional cows or land 
that is needed. Another way of enlarging the farm is to 
rent additional land. There are half a million farmers in 
the United States who own part of the land that they operate, 
and who rent additional land. 

Returns per Cow 

231. Reasons for Poor Returns. No single factor is 
more important than the returns per cow (see Table 41). 
Low returns may be due to not having a good market for 



270 DAIRY FARMING 

dairy products, or may be due to selling the wrong kind 
of product ; for instance, making butter in a region where 
there is a good demand for market milk at much better 
prices. Low returns may be due to keeping the wrong 
kind of cattle for the region or for the kind of product sold, 
or to poor production because of poor care or feed, or to 
having cows that are naturally not good ones. Before 
one can intelligently change his practice, he must find out 
to which of these causes his poor returns are due. The 
preceding chapters have given attention to feeding and 
to determining which are the cows that are naturally 
poor, so that nothing more need be said on these most 
vital points. 

Even in regions unfavorable for dairying there are usually 
some persons who make more money by combining dairying 
with their other farm work than they would make if they 
did not keep cows. Everywhere there must be cows enough 
to supply the fresh milk even if butter is shipped in. 
But in some regions the prices of products are low com- 
pared with feed prices and other costs. In such regions, a 
farmer who is only a fair dairyman may find that it pays 
best to keep only a few cows or possibly to keep only enough 
to supply products for home use. 

In some regions milk is sold by the quart at the same 
price regardless of the percentage of butter-fat. In such a 
region, herds that give a high test are at so great a disad- 
vantage that they cannot often be made to pay. 

Those who keep pure-bred cattle sometimes fail to make 
a profit because they select a breed that is not desired in the 
region. The best market for the surplus stock of the small 
breeder is nearly always in his neighborhood. He should 
raise the kind that is wanted. 



FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 271 

232. Costs and Returns must Both be Considered. No 

set standard can be given for the receipts that are necessary 
in order to make a profit, because the costs of feed and labor 
are so variable in different regions and on different farms in 
the same region. But many studies of this question have 
indicated that it is a fairly easy matter to obtain receipts per 
cow of a half more than the average for the region. Usually 
the most profitable farms in a region are doing as well as 
this. But increased costs must also be considered. It is 
not the return per cow, nor the cost, that is of most impor- 
tance, but the relation between the two. Sometimes the 
better returns are obtained at too great cost. On the other 
hand, a dairy herd that produces less than the average some- 
times pays, because the farmer has reduced the cost of feed 
and labor to a still lower point. 

233. For Good Returns the Poor Producers should be 
Promptly Sold. In one county in New York the farmers 
who obtained the best production per cow were doing the 
most buying and selling of cows. Those who obtained poor 
to fair returns were on the average replacing 1 cow in 23 by 
purchase, but those who obtained the best returns replaced 
one-seventh of the herd each year by purchase. 

Those who got the lowest production per cow replaced one- 
seventh of the herd each year by cows purchased or raised. 
Those who obtained good production replaced one-fifth, 
and those who got the best production replaced one-fourth 
each year. They disposed of poor cows and milked good 
cows whether they were home-raised or purchased. The 
essential point is not who raised the cow, but how much 
her milk is worth. 

234. Size of Cows. As machines for changing feed into 
milk, large cows and small cows seem to be about equally 



272 



DAIRY FARMING 



effective. But the milk produced for a given amount of 
barn room and labor is also important. Of two animals 
that are equally efficient users of food, the larger animal is 
usually much more profitable. Table 42 gives the value 
of the milk and value of the feed for 355 cows in 
Wisconsin. 

Table 42. — Relation of Size of Cows to Value of Product 

ABOVE Food Cost^ 



Weight of 
Cows 


Average 
Weight 


Number 

OF 

Cows 


Pounds 

OF 

Butter- 
fat 


Value of 
Product 


Value of 
Feed 


Value 

OF 

Product 

FOR $1 

IN Feed 


900 and 














under 


847 


87 


366.2 


$114.52 


$60.32 


$1.90 


901-1000 


952 


82 


417.8 


131.22 


69.86 


1.88 


1001-1100 


1071 


53 


447.8 


142.56 


76.28 


1.87 


1101-1200 


1175 


60 


477.7 


155.02 


82.81 


1.87 


1201-1300 


1276 


31 


506.2 


163.52 


91.51 


1.79 


1301-1400 


1379 


26 


525.8 


171.79 


92.15 


1.86 


Over 1400 


1556 


16 


566.6 


184.61 


96.60 


1.91 



Value 

OF 

Product 
above 
Food 
Cost 



$54.20 
61.36 
66.28 
72.21 
72.01 
79.64 
88.01 



It takes very little more barn room and very little more 
labor to care for large cows than it does for small ones. 
Medicine, veterinary fees, and many other expenses cost 
about the same for large as for small cows. These costs were 
found to be $25 per year in Minnesota, and $29 in New 
York (page 247). 

According to the figures in Table 42 a herd of 15 cows av- 
eraging 1276 pounds in weight would make more butter than 
20 cows averaging 847 pounds. The saving on labor, barn 
room, and other fixed costs, would be about $125 per year 



1 Data furnished by F. W. WoU, for cows whose records are reported in 
Wisconsin, Bulletin 226. 



FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 273 

by keeping the smaller number of large cows. Where the 
land is level, and particularly if hay or other roughage is 
abundant, large cows are usually more profitable. Even 
if small ones are introduced the farmers usually change 
to large ones in time. Where the pastures are on steep, 
rocky hillsides small cows are better able to hold their 
place. If pastures are very poor, the large cow is at a 
disadvantage. She needs more feed, but she is not able 
to walk so far as the small one. In the South where 
heat and insects are both serious enemies of the dairy 
business, nearly all of the cows kept are of the small active 
breeds. 

Records of 110 cows kept by the University of Nebraska 
showed that cows averaging 801 pounds in weight gave an 
average of 263 pounds of butter-fat, those weighing 1002 
pounds gave 278 pounds of fat, and those averaging 1211 
pounds produced 346 pounds of butter-fat. The production 
was in proportion to the size.^ 

Of course the vital point is production per cow. If one is 
buying a cow with a known record, it is the record that 
should be considered. A large cow that is a failure is a 
bigger failure than a small one that is a failure. The best 
success comes from keeping large cows that are also good 
for their size. 

When large numbers are considered, the production and 
feed consumption seem to be about in proportion to the size. 
The advantage of having large animals is in the saving of 
barn room and labor, just as there is an advantage in using 
a six-foot mower rather than a four-foot one. 

^ Records of cows reported in Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station 
Bulletin 139. Cows sorted by average weights for the years reported, into 
three groups, 900 pounds or less, 901-1100 pounds, and over 1100 pounds. 

T 



274 DAIRY FARMING 



Crop Yields 



The returns from crops and costs of these crops have as 
much to do with the success of the farm as a whole as do the 
returns from the cows. It is not enough that the farmer 
be a good dairyman, he should be a good dairy farmer. 
Sometimes the farmer raises crops that are good for feed 
but cost too much to raise. More frequently the yields are 
not good enough to be profitable. 

235. Soils for the Dairy Farm. Only under exceptional 
conditions does it pay to choose land that is not naturally 
productive. The farmer ordinarily raises all the hay and 
part of the grain for the cows. If he buys grain, he ought 
to have for sale some product other than milk that will more 
than pay the feed bill. It is usually difficult for a farmer who 
has poor land to succeed in competition with those who have 
good land. Occasionally, but not usually, the poor land is 
enough cheaper to make up for the difference in quality. 

The best dairy soils are loams and clay loams that grow 
grass well. The great dairy sections of the North are on 
soils that grow Kentucky blue-grass and white clover for 
pasture, clover or alfalfa hay, and corn. Dairy farms do 
not as a rule buy much chemical fertilizer. The farmers 
who get better crops than their neighbors are as a rule 
receiving greater profits than the average, but as in the 
case of good returns per cow, the returns are sometimes 
obtained by methods that are too costly. Sometimes poor 
crops are grown by such economical methods that they pay 
well. Many successful farmers have crops a fifth better 
than their neighbors grow. 

236. The Well-balanced Farm. If a good-sized business, 
good cows, and good crops are three of the most important 



FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 



275 



factors for success, then a farmer who excels in all three 
ought to do very well indeed. With rare exceptions this is 
the case. Table 43 gives the labor incomes on 585 farms. 

Table 43. — Relation of Size of Farm, Receipts per Cow, 
AND Crop Yields, to Labor Income on 585 Farms with 
Six or More Cows, Jefferson County, New York 



Receipts per cow $50 or less 



3S per cow 355U or less 
Crop index 85 per cent or less 
index 86-115 per cent 

^. index over 115 per cent 

Receipts per cow $51-$75 



Crop 

,eceipt 

Crop 



eceipts per cow 3?51-$75 
Crop index 85 per cent or less 
Crop index 86-115 per cent 
Crop index over 115 per cent 
Receipts per cow over $75 
Crop index 85 per cent or less 
Crop index 86-115 per cent 
Crop index over 115 per cent 



Acres 



100 or less 



101-150 



Labor Income Labor Income 



$ 273 
482 
415 

590 
653 
636 

935 
1038 
1124 



381 
158 

304 
437 
537 

594 
641 
659 



Over 150 



Labor Income 

$ 331 
424 
413 

669 
1017 
1161 

1233 
1148 
1291 



They are grouped as small, medium, and good-sized farms; 
small, medium, and good returns per cow ; and small, medium, 
and good crop yields ; so that there are 27 different com- 
binations (crop index compares the crops with average crops 
as 100 per cent). A study of this table indicates that if the 
crops are wasted by being fed to cows that give very poor 
returns, the final result is poor, even with a good-sized farm 
and good crops. Medium cows and medium crops with 
a good-sized farm pay very much better than the best cows 
and crops on a small farm. Improvement in any one of 
the three points helps, but well-balanced improvement in 
all is best. A fourth important factor for success in dairy 



276 



DAIRY FARMING 



farming is the diversity of the business. It usually pays 
better to have cash crops or other products combined with 
the dairy. 

Diversified and Specialized Dairy Farms 

237. Relation of Cash Crops to Profits. As has previously 
been mentioned (page 229), farmers who combine cash crops 
or some other product with dairying, usually make more 
than do those who sell nothing but dairy products. The 
poorer the cows, or the lower the price of dairy products, 
the more important it is that crops be sold. But even 
with extra good returns per cow, those who sell some crops 
are usually doing better than those who sell no crops, 
as is shown in Table 44. The results here given are 
for a typical region in New York. In the corn-belt the 
most generally profitable type of dairy farming is to raise 
corn for sale or for hog feed in addition to raising feed 
for the cows. 

Table 44. — Relation of Receipts per Cow and Cash Crops 
TO Profits on 585 Farms with Six or More Cows. Jef- 
ferson County, New York 



Per Cent of Receipts from Crops 



No crops sold 
1-20 per cent 
21-40 . . 
41-60 . . 
Over 60 



Receipts per Cow prom Milk and 
ITS Products 



$50 or less 



Labor Income 

$ 56 
311 
426 
554 
599 



$51-$75 



Labor Income 

$ 571 

589 

947 

1366 



Over S75 



Labor Income 

$ 926 

962 

1183 



^ Only two farms in this group. 



^ No farms in this group. 



FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 



'it 



238. Relation of Capital to Amount of Stock Kept. The 
amount of capital must also be considered in determining 
how many cows to keep. Farmers who are short of capital 
usually keep less stock than do those who have more capital. 



Table 45. — Relation of Capital and Cash Crops to Profits. 
578 Farms, Livingston County, New York 



Per Cent of Receipts prom Crops 



20 or less 
21-40 . 
41-70 . 
71-90 . 
Over 90 . 



Capital 



$5000 or less 



Labor Income 

$253 
181 
256 
424 
231 



$5001- 
$15,000 



Labor Income 

$399 
411 
624 
623 
497 



Over $15,000 



Labor Income 

$1000 

1399 

1038 

1194 

473 



Table 45 shows that with small capital those .who depend 
largely on cash crops make the most, while with larger 
capital those who derive more of their money from live- 
stock are doing best. The exact capital groups will vary 
with different land values, but tljie principle is universal, that 
one who is short of capital should keep less stock than one 
who has more money. This is as one would expect. Live- 
stock represents added capital after one has bought and 
equipped his farm. If one is short of money, the absolutely 
essential things are land, machinery, and horses. One may 
get along without live-stock, but one cannot farm without 
land and equipment. The majority of farmers understand 
this principle. When they get more money, they increase 
the amount and improve the quality of their live-stock. 

For the young man with small capital it often pays to 
gradually work into pure-bred cattle. One can begin with 



278 



DAIRY FARMING 



a few moderate-priced pure-breds and, with a good bull, 
can gradually develop a good herd. Ordinary pure-breds 
can be improved just as grade cows can be improved. The 
advantage of the pure-breds is that after one has them im- 
proved, they are in greater demand for breeding purposes 
because they are recorded. 

239. Acres per Animal Unit. Another way of comparing 
farms is on the basis of the number of acres of crops grown 
per animal unit kept. Results for one dairy region in New 
York are given in Table 46. The amount of stock that it 
pays to keep, of course, depends on the returns that one gets 
from it. With very poor returns, very little stock should 
be kept. The better the returns, the more heavily the 
place should be stocked. With good stock in the region 
here mentioned, it pays best to have an animal unit other 
than horses for each 3 to 4 acres of crops. The exact ampunt 
that it pays to keep will of course vary with different regions 
and on different farms, but nearly always it is best to have 
the place moderately well stocked rather than go to either 
extreme. 



Table 46. — Relation of Acres of Crops per Animal and 
Receipts per Animal Unit to Labor Income. 670 Farms, 
Jefferson County, New York 





Receipts for each Animal Unit ex- 




cept Horses 








$50 or less 


$51-$75 


Over $75 




Labor Income 


Labor Income 


Labor Income 


1.0-2.0 


$210 


$649 


$ 895 


2.1-3.0 


264 


680 


971 


3.1-4.0 


314 


763 


1053 


Over 4.0 


378 


824 


914 



FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 



279 



240. Reasons for Larger Profits on Diversified Farms. 
There are many reasons why it does not pay to go to the 
extreme either way. Ordinarily a man can raise feed for 
more cows than he can milk. If each man milks 10 to 15 



Hours 



1200 



800 



400 



Distribution Man Labor 




M A M J 



Cattle 


II 


Corn 


Horses I^^Ti 


Oats, 1913 


Manure ^]^L 


Oats, 1914 


Potatoes, 1912 


<X>CXX> 


Wheat, 1914 


X?S66» 


Potatoes, 1913 


r r 


Hay 




N D 



Alfalfa, 1914 

Cabbage 

Poultry 

Farm 

Personal 

Equipment 



Fig. 78. — Distribution of man labor on a highly successful diversified 
dairy farm, that kept 42 cows, 1 bull, 10 heifers, and 9 horses. The crops 
raised were potatoes 11 acres, corn for silo 19 acres, oats 44 acres, hay 
102 acres, and cabbage 7 acres, besides starting crops for the next year. 
The cabbages, potatoes, and some of the hay were sold for more than enough 
to pay the entire feed and labor bills. 

COWS, he can raise the hay and silage for these cows and part 
of the grain, and in addition will have time to raise hay, grain, 
potatoes, cabbage, or other crops for sale. If the cows are 
so poor, or prices of the product so low, that the cows do not 
pay a good price for their feed, it is of vital importance that 



280 DAIRY FARMING 

cash crops be raised. Even if the cows are highly profitable, it 
may still pay to raise crops for sale, because these crops can 
be raised at very little additional cost. It might be suggested 
that more cows be kept to eat the additional crops, but this 
calls for more men, who in turn can raise additional crops. 

In regions where cash crops are not raised, the women 
usually help with the milking because the farmer can raise 
feed for more cows than he can milk, and it does not pay to 
keep a hired man unless there is full work for him. Women 
can milk and do housework between milkings. If the 
region is well adapted to crops, it pays better to employ men 
and have them do farm work between milkings. Figure 78, 
page 279, shows the distribution of labor on a very success- 
ful diversified dairy farm. The owners of this farm have 
followed the same system for three generations and have 
always been successful. 

If a farm is too heavily stocked, much feed will have to be 
purchased in a poor year or some of the stock must be sold. 
In such years feed is likely to be very high and stock cheap, 
so that whatever one does he is likely to lose. 

If a farm is too heavily stocked, the returns per ton of 
manure used will be low. The value of manure depends on 
how heavily it is applied. A light application usually gives 
better returns per ton of manure than does a heavy applica- 
tion, as shown on page 235. 

If one goes to the other extreme and keeps no animals or 
too few animals, he will not have a full year's work. Animals 
help to provide winter work, they provide work night and 
morning when the days are too short to allow a full day of field 
work. Notice how little winter work there would be for the 
farm shown in figure 78 if there were no cows and no manure 
hauling. 



FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 281 

Most farms have a considerable amount of low-grade 
hay, mixed hay, and other products that do not have much 
market value or that are too bulky to pay to sell. At least 
enough stock should be kept to make use of these low-grade 
products. On many farms there is some land that will not 
pay for farming, but that will bring some income as pasture. 
Farmers who find cash crops very profitable often tend to 
keep too little live-stock. 

The more money one has and the more profitable his 
animals are, the nearer he should come to exclusive stock 
farming, but it usually pays to sell at least one cash crop. 
In the corn-belt, corn marketed through the hog takes the 
place of a cash crop. When little money is available and 
when stock pays poorly, one should keep fewer animals, but 
it usually pays to produce at least one kind of animal or 
animal product. It is desirable that a farm have two to 
four important products for sale, and usually at least one 
should be an animal product, and at least one a cash 
crop. 

Some Successful Dairy Farms 

241. A Successful Dairy and Hog Farm in Iowa. One 
can learn much by a study of successful farms, provided he 
is sure that the farm he is studying is really successful. A 
farm is a financial success when it pays interest on the 
capital invested and pays good wages to the operator. Some- 
times unimportant peculiarities of the farm are erroneously 
considered the cause of success. A systematic study of a 
number of farms will help to avoid this error. The record 
here given for an Iowa farm shows one of the best types 
of dairy farming for the corn-belt. (Data furnished by 
Professor H. B. Hunger, Iowa State College.) 



282 



DAIRY FARMING 



Capital Invested in the Farm Business 



160 acres land 

Machinery and tools 

18 cows, 4 heifers, 2 calves . . . . 
1 buU 

17 cows, 2 heifers, 11 calves . . . 

8 horses, 2 colts 

7 horses, 3 colts 

5 ewes 

18 brood sows, 26 other hogs and pigs 

19 brood sows, 40 other hogs and pigs 

100 chickens 

Feed and supplies 

Cash to run farm 



April 1, 1913 

$32,000 

715 

2000 

175 

1340 

35 
630 

50 

1079 

100 



,124 



April 1, 1914 

$32,000 
764 

175 
2440 

1360 



715 

50 

1047 

100 



$38,651 



Crops Grown 1913 



Crop 


Acres 


Total Yield 


Amount 
Sold 


Amount 
Received 


Corn 

Corn for silo .... 

Oats 

Hay 


44 
11 

28 
15 


1990 bu. 
128 tons 
1540 bu. 
19 tons 


150 
600 


$95 
198 



In addition, there were 45 acres of rotated pasture and 
17 acres of farmstead roads and waste land. Corn is raised 
for two years, followed by oats in which grass is seeded. The 
hay is left down two years, part for hay and part for pasture. 

Receipts 

3939 lb. butter-fat @ 33^, skim-milk returned . . . $1300 
12 cattle sold and 6 increase of inventory .... 755 

Eggs 30 

85 hogs sold and 15 increase of inventory .... 1645 

Horses sold and increase of inventory 138 

150 bushels corn 95 

600 bushels oats 198 

Outside labor 9 

Machine work 30 

$4200 



FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 283 

Farm Expenses 

1 man 12 months $ 344 

1 man 1 month 40 

Machinery and repairs cost above increase value . . 81 

Grain feed 69 

Horseshoeing 10 

Breeding fees 20 

Veterinary 20 

Seeds 47 

Twine 11 

Threshing 31 

Machine work hired 13 

Fuel for farm use 5 

Insurance 25 

Taxes 110 

Sheep sold for less than inventory value 7 

Decrease in feed on hand 32 

$ 865 

Summary 

Receipts $4200 

Expenses 865 

Income from capital and operator's labor .... $ 3335 

Interest on average capital $38,388 at 5% . . . . 1919 

Labor income $ 1416 

Efficiency Factors 
Size 

Acres 160 

Acres crops 98 

Number cows 17i 

Number brood sows 18^ 

Number men 2x^2 

Number work horses 7| 

Number of productive man work units 620 

Number of productive horse work units 435 

Production 

Corn 45 bushels per acre 

Oats 55 bushels per acre 

Hay 11 tons per acre 

Receipts per cow from butter-fat $74 

Receipts per cattle unit $88 

Pigs raised per sow 5.4 

Diversity 

Three main sources of income — milk, cattle, and hogs 



284 DAIRY FARMING 

Efficiency in use of labor 
Crop acres per man 47 
Crop acres per horse 13 
Work units per man 298 
Work units per horse 58 

Fertility 
Acres of crops, including rotated pasture per animal unit 3.6 

The farm represents a good-sized business. It provides full 
work for two men (one besides the owner) and has enough crops 
to justify the use of four-horse teams and good machinery. 

The crop yields are excellent. The returns per cow are 
very good for milk sold to a creamery. The $74 per cow 
represents a production of 225 pounds of butter-fat per cow 
in addition to new milk for home use and for calves. The 
number of pigs per sow is good. 

The farm has three important products, — milk, cattle, 
and hogs. The corn raised for hog feed takes the place of 
the cash crops that are raised by the farm described on page 
285. The farmer has for five years used a pure-bred bull and 
now has ten pure-bred cows, so that cattle are a third im- 
portant source of income. 

The acres of crops raised per man and work units per man 
are very good. The efficiency in the use of horses is only 
fair. It is possible that the farm might pay a little better 
if fewer horses were kept. 

In short, the farm is a good-sized business, has good crops, 
good cows, good diversity, and uses man labor efficiently, and 
the place is carrying enough stock so that there is a good 
supply of manure. 

The farmer had a common school education. He worked 
as a hired man five years, then as tenant five years, after 
which he bought this farm and has been operating it four 
years. The efiiciency factors given above when compared 



FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 



285 



with the averages for farms given in preceding tables, show 
how well the farm is managed. 

242. A Successful Diversified Dairy Farm in New York. 
This farm is typical of the best general type of dairy farming 
for those portions of the Eastern States where intensive 
cash crops combine well with dairying. 

Capital Invested in the Farm Business 



211 acres of land . 
Machinery and tools 
31 cows .... 

2 calves .... 

3 calves .... 
1 bull .... 
5 horses .... 
25 sheep, 38 lambs 
28 sheep, 43 lambs 
75 chickens . . . 
Feed and supplies . 
Cast to run farm . 




Crops Grown 



Crop 


Acres 


Total Yield 


Amount 
Sold 


Amount 
Received 


Corn for silo .... 

Wheat 

Oats 

Timothy and clover hay 

Potatoes 

Apples ..... 
Cabbage 


10 

11 

26 

55 

12 

2 

1 


120 tons 
330 bu. 

1006 bu. 
83 tons 

2400 bu. 

40000 lb. 


310 bu. 

2 tons 
2025 bu. 
36000 lb. 


$264 

25 

1050 

145 



In addition to the above there were 85 acres of permanent 
pasture and 9 acres of woods, farmstead, waste land, etc. 



286 DAIRY FARMING 

Receipts 

264,837 lb. milk $3449 

Calves sold and increase inventory 290 

Sheep, lambs, and wool 204 

Eggs . . 106 

310 bu. wheat 264 

2 tons hay 25 

2025 bu. potatoes 1050 

Apples 145 

$5533 

Farm Expenses 

Labor $1100 

Feed 511 

Fertilizer 100 

Seeds 53 

Other expenses 260 

$2024 

Summary 

Receipts $5533 

Expenses 2024 

Income from capital and operator's labor .... 3509 

Interest on average capital $18,455 @ 5% . . . . 923 

Labor income 2586 

Efficiency Factors 
Size 

Acres 211 

Acres of crops 117 

Number of cows 31 

Number of men 3f 

Number of work horses 5 

Number units productive man work 835 

Number units productive horse work 431 
Production 

Corn 12 tons 

Potatoes 200 bu. 

Oats 41 bu. 

Wheat 30 bu. 

Milk sold per cow 8543 lb. 

Receipt per cow from milk $111 

Receipt per cattle unit $112 

Lambs raised per ewe 1.5 

Receipts per ewe $8.16 



FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 287 

Diversity 

Two main sources of income — milk and potatoes — several 
other important things. 

Efficiency in use of labor 

Crop acres per man 32 

Crop acres per horse 23 

Work units per man 228 

Work units per horse 86 

Fertility 

Acres of crops per animal unit 2,6 

Fertilizers produced per acre of crops . . . $.85 

Although this farm is a long distance from the preceding 
one, its success has been due to the same factors. The farm 
is a good-sized business, the cows and crops are good, the 
farm combines dairying with cash crops. The only differ- 
ence is that the Iowa farm marketed its corn crop through 
hogs, while the New York farm raised a human food crop for 
direct sale. Instead of keeping hogs to eat up extra grain, 
the New York farm depends to a large extent on purchased 
grain. Each farm followed the best type of farming for its 
conditions. Because of the size and diversity of the business 
each man is accomplishing a large amount. The production 
per cow on this farm is unusually good. The farmer has been 
in the dairy business for many years and now has a herd of 
high grade and pure-bred Holsteins. The farmer began as 
a tenant and worked this farm many years on shares. Be- 
cause of his good-sized diversified business, with good pro- 
duction, he was able to save money and buy the farm. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 

1. What is the labor income for a farm on which the expenses 
amounted to $1028, the receipts $2524, and on which the capital 
was $20,247 ? 

2. For a dairy farm in your region find the total area, area in 
each crop, number of each kind of animals, and number of men em- 



288 DAIRY FARMING 

ploj^ed. Calculate the units of productive man and horse work. 
Calculate the area of crops and units of productive work per man and 
per horse. Compare with farms of the same area in Tables 33-40. 
If each student bases his report on a different farm, the results" may 
be compared. 

3. To how many animal units is the stock on the above farm 
equal? (See p. 218.) How many acres of crops per animal unit? 
About what proportion of the manure is produced in the barn. 
How many tons would this probably make per year if it is all saved ? 
If the manure is well cared for, and if eight tons are applied per acre, 
how many years would it take to cover the entire farm? 

4. What is the value of the barns on the above farm? How 
much is this per animal unit? Compare with Table 39. 

5. Are conditions in your region naturally favorable for large 
or for small breeds of dairy cattle ? 

6. What things aside from dairy products are commonly sold 
from dairy farms in your region ? 

7. As an average for the beginning and end of the year, how 
many animal units are there on the farm described on page 281 ? 
How many on the farm on page 285? 

8. Compare the farms on pages 242 and 244 as to size of business, 
crop yields, returns per cow, work units per man and horse, and in 
other ways. 

9. Compare each of the above farms as to efficiency in the use 
of men and horses with farms of the same area in Table 36. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

36. Record of a Year's Business on a Farm. Arrange with 
some dairy farmer to allow the class to go to his farm and study 
his methods and obtain a record of his business for the past year, 
using Farmer's Bulletin 661 for taking the record. Later calculate 
the labor income and work, the efficiency factors, and compare 
with the farms described on pages 281 and 285. What are the 
strong points and what are the weak points of the farm ? 

Each student should make a similar record and study of the farm 
on which he lives. 

COLLATERAL READING 

A Method of Analyzing the Farm Business, U. S. Dept. Agr., 
Farmers' Bulletin 661. 

Farm Management, G. F. Warren, pp. 535-565. 



APPENDIX 

ADDRESSES OF CATTLE BREEDERS' ASSOCIATIONS 

American Aberdeen-Angus Breeders' Association, Charles Gray, 
Sec, Chicago, 111. 

Ayrshire Breeders' Association, C. M. Winslow, Sec, Brandon, 
Vt. 

Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association, Ira Inman, Sec, 
Beloit, Wis. 

Dutch Belted Cattle Association of America, E. J. Kirby, Sec, 
Covert, Mich. 

American Galloway Breeders' Association, R. W. Brown, Sec, 
Carrollton, Mo. 

The American Guernsey Cattle Club, William H. Caldwell, Sec, 
Peterboro, N.H. 

American Hereford Cattle Breeders' Association, R. J. Kinzer 
Sec, Kansas City, Mo. 

The Holstein-Friesian Association of America, F. L. Houghton, 
Sec, Brattleboro, Vt. 

The American Jersey Cattle Club, R. M. Gow, Sec, 324 West 
23d St., New York City. 

Red Polled Cattle Club of America, H. A. Martin, Sec, Gotham, 
Wis. 

American Shorthorn Breeders' Association, P. W. Harding, Sec, 
Chicago, 111. 

The Polled Durham Breeders' Association, J. H. Martz, Sec, 
Greenville, O. 



u 289 



290 APPENDIX 

SCALE OF POINTS FOR JERSEY COW 
Adopted by the American Jersey Cattle Club, 1913 

Dairy Temperament and Constitution 

Head, 7. 

A. Medium size, lean ; face dished; broad between eyes ; 

horns medium size, incurving 3 

B. Eyes fuU and placid ; ears medium size, fine, carried 

alert ; muzzle broad, with wide open nostrils and 
muscular Ups, jaw strong 4 

Neck, 4. 

Thin, rather long, with clean throat, neatly joined to 
head and shoulders 4 

Body, 37. 

A. Shoulders light, good distance through from point to 

point, but thin at withers ; chest deep and full be- 
tween and just back of fore legs 5 

B. Ribs amply sprung and wide apart, giving wedge 

shape, with deep, large abdomen, firmly held up, 
with strong muscular development 10 

C. Back straight and strong, with prominent spinal pro- 

cesses ; loins broad and strong 5 

D. Rump long to tail-setting, and level from hip bones 

to rump bones • 6 

E. Hip-bones high and wide apart 3 

F. Thighs flat and wide apart, giving ample room for 

udder 3 

G. Legs proportionate to size and of fine quality, well 

apart, with good feet, and not to weave or cross in 

walking 2 

H. Hide loose and mellow 2 

/. Tail thin, long, with good switch, not coarse at setting- 
on 1 

Udder, 26. 

A. Large size, flexible, and not fleshy 6 

B. Broad, level or spherical, not deeply cut between 

teats 4 

C. Fore udder full and well rounded, running well for- 

ward of front teats 10 

Carry forward ^ 



APPENDIX 291 

Brought forward 68 
D. Rear udder well rounded, and well out and up be- 
hind 6 

Teats, 8. 

Of good and uniform length and size, regularly placed . 8 
Milk-Veins, 4. 

Large, long, tortuous, and elastic, entering large and 

numerous orifices 4 

Size, 4. 

Mature cows, 800 to 1000 pounds 4 

General Appearance, 10. 

A symmetrical balancing of all the parts, and a propor- 
tioning of parts to each other, depending on size of animal, 
with the general appearance of a high-class animal, with 
capacity for food and productiveness at pail . . . 10 

100 

SCALE OF POINTS FOR AYRSHIRE COW 

Adopted by Ayrshire Breeders' Association, 1906 

Head, 10. 

Forehead — Broad and clearly defined 1 

Horns — Wide set on and inclining upward 1 

Face — Of medium length, slightly dished, clean-cut, 

showing veins 2 

Muzzle — Broad and strong without coarseness, nostrils 

large 1 

Jaws — Wide at the base and strong 1 

Eyes — Full and bright with placid expression ... 3 
Ears — Of medium size and fine, carried alert .... 1 
Neck, 3. 

. Fine throughout, throat clean, neatly joined to head and 
shoulders, of good length, moderately thin, nearly free 

from loose skin, elegant in bearing 3 

Fore Quarters, 10. 

Shoulders — Light, good distance through from point 
to point, but sharp at withers, smoothly blending into 

body 2 

Chest — Low, deep, and full between and back of fore- 
legs ......•• .^ 

Carry forward ^•*- 



292 APPENDIX 

Brought forward 21 

Brisket — Light 1 

Legs and Feet — Legs straight and short, well apart, 
shanks fine and smooth, joints firm ; feet medium size, 

round, solid, and deep 1 

Body, 13. 

Back — Strong and straight, chine lean, sharp, and open 

. jointed 4 

Loin — Broad, strong, and level 2 

Ribs — Long, broad, wide apart, and well sprung . . 3 
Abdomen — Capacious, deep, firmly held up with strong 

muscular development 3 

Flank — Thin and arching 1 

Hind Quarters, 11. 

Rump — Wide, level, and long from hooks to pin bones, 

a reasonable pelvic arch allowed 3 

Hooks — Wide apart and not projecting above back nor 

unduly overlaid with fat 2 

Pin Bones — High and wide apart 1 

Thighs — Thin, long, and wide apart 2 

Tail — Long, fine, set on a level with the back .... 1 
Legs and Feet — Legs strong, short, straight when 
viewed from behind and set well apart ; shanks fine 
and smooth, joints firm ; feet medium size, round, 

solid, and deep 2 

Udder, 22. 

Long, wide, deep, but not pendulous, nor fleshy; 
firmly attached to the body, extending well up, behind 
and far forward ; quarters even ; sole nearly level 
and not indented between teats, udder veins well 

developed and plainly visible 22 

Teats, 8. 

Evenly placed, distance apart from side to side equal to 
half the breadth of udder, from back to front equal to 
one-third the length ; length 2| to 3| inches, thickness 
in keeping with length, hanging perpendicular, and not 

tapering 8 

Mammary Veins, 5. 

•Large, long, tortuous, branching, and entering large 

orifices , _5 

Carry forward 82 



APPENDIX 293 

Brought forward 82 

Escutcheon, 2. 

Distinctly defined, spreading over thighs and extending 

well upward 2 

Color, 2. 

Red of any shade, brown, or these with white ; mahog- 
any and white, or white ; each color distinctly defined. 
(Brindle markings allowed, but not desirable) .... 2 
Covering, 6. 

Skin — Of medium thickness, mellow, and elastic ... 3 

Hair — Soft and fine 2 

Secretions — Oily, of rich brown or yellow color ... 1 
Style, 4. 

Alert, vigorous, showing strong character, temperament 

inclined to nervousness, but still docile 4 

Weight, 4. 

Weight at maturity not less than one thousand pounds 4 

Total 100 



SCALE OF POINTS FOR GUERNSEY COW 

Adopted by Guernsey Cattle Club 

Dairy Temperament Constitution, 38. 

Clean-cut, lean face ; strong, sinewy jaw ; wide muzzle 
with wide-open nostrils ; full, bright eye with quiet 
and gentle expression ; forehead long and broad. . . 5 

Long, thin neck with strong juncture to head ; clean 
throat. Backbone rising well between shoulder blades ; 
large rugged spinal processes, indicating good devel- 
opment of the spinal cord . 5 

Pelvis arching and wide ; rump long ; wide, strong struc- 
ture of spine at setting on of tail. Long, thin tail with 
good switch. Thin, incurving thighs 5 

Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide apart, giving an 
open, relaxed conformation ; thin arching flanks . . 5 

Abdomen large and deep, with strong muscular and navel 
development, indicative of capacity and vitality . . 15 

Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feeling and texture, but 

not thick _3 

Carry forward 38 



294 APPENDIX 

Brought forward 38 

Milking Marks Denoting Quantity of Flow, 10. 

Escutcheon wide on thighs ; high and broad, with thighs 

oval 2 

Milk veins long, crooked, branching, and prominent, with 

large or deep wells 8 

Udder Formation, 26. 

Udder full in front 8 

Udder full and well up behind 8 

Udder of large size and capacity 4 

Teats well apart, squarely placed, and of good and even 

size 6 

Indicating Color of Milk, 15. 

Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of tail, at base of 
horns, on udder, teats, and body generally. Hoof, 

amber-colored 15 

Milking Marks Denoting Quality of Flow, 6. 

Udder showing plenty of substance, but not too meaty 6 

Symmetry and Size, 5. 

Color of hair, a shade of fawn, with white markings. 
Cream-colored nose. Horns amber-colored, small, curved, 

and not coarse 3 

Size for the breed : mature cows, four years old or over 

about 1050 pounds 2 

100 

SCALE OF POINTS FOR HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN COW 

Adopted by Holstein-Friesian Association 

Head — Decidedly feminine in appearance ; fine in contour 2 

Forehead — Broad between the eyes ; dishing 2 

Face — Of medium length ; clean and trim especially under the 

eyes, showing facial veins ; the bridge of the nose straight 2 

Muzzle — Broad with strong lips 1 

Ears — Of medium size ; of fine texture ; the hair plentiful and 

soft ; the secretion oily and abundant 1 

Eyes — Large ; full ; mild ; bright 2 

Horns — Small ; tapering finely towards the tips ; set modera- 

ately narrow at base ; oval ; inclining forward ; well bent 

inward ; of fine texture ; in appearance waxy . . . . 1 

Carry forward 11 



APPENDIX 295 

Brought forward 11 

Neck — Long ; fine and clean at juncture with the head ; free 

from dewlap ; evenly and smoothly joined to shoulders 4 

Shoulders — Slightly lower than hips ; fine and even over 

tops ; moderately broad and full at sides 3 

Chest — Of moderate depth and lowness ; smooth and moder- 
ately full in the brisket, full in the fore flanks (or through 
the heart) 6 

Crops — Moderately full 2 

Chine — Straight ; strong ; broadly developed, with open 

vertebrae 6 

Barrel — Long ; of wedge shape ; well rounded ; with a large 
abdomen, trimly held up (in judging the last item age 
must be considered) 7 

Loin and Hips — Broad ; level or nearly level between the 
hook bones ; level and strong laterally ; spreading from 
chine broadly and nearly level ; hook bones fairly promi- 
nent 6 

Rump — Long ; high ; broad with roomy pelvis ; nearly level 
laterally; comparatively full above the thurl; carried 
out straight to dropping of tail 6 

Thurl — High, broad 3 

Quarters — Deep ; straight behind ; twist filled with develop- 
ment of udder; wide and moderately full at the sides 4 

Flanks — Deep ; comparatively full 2 

Legs — Comparatively short ; clean and nearly straight ; wide 
apart ; firmly and squarely set under the body ; feet of 
medium size, round, solid, and deep 4 

Tail — Large at base, the setting well back ; tapering finely to 
switch ; the end of the bone reaching to hocks or below ; 
the switch full 2 

Hair and Handling — • Hair healthful in appearance ; fine, soft, 
and furry ; the skin of medium thickness and loose ; 
mellow under the hand ; the secretions oily, abundant, 
and of a rich brown or yellow color 8 

Mammary Veins — Very large ; very crooked (age must be 
taken into consideration in judging of size and crooked- 
ness) ; entering very large or numerous orifices ; double 
extension ; with special developments, such as branches, 

connections, etc 10 

Carry forward 4: 



296 



APPENDIX 



Brought forward 

Udder and Teats — Very capacious ; very flexible ; quarters 
even ^ nearly filling the space in the rear below the twist, 
extending well forward in front ; broad and well held up 

Teats — Well formed ; wide apart, plump, and of convenient 
size 

Escutcheon — Largest ; finest 

Table 47. — Imports and Exports of Dairy Products 



84 



12 

2 
2 



100 





Year Ending 
June 30, 1912 ■ 


Year Ending 
June 30, 1913 


Year Ending 
June 30, 1914 




Amount 


Value 


Amoxmt 


Value 


Amount 


Value 


Imports 

Butter, pounds . 
Cheese, pounds 
Cream, gallons . 
Milk .... 


1,025,668 

46,542,007 

1,120,427 


$237,154 

8,807,249 

923,779 

61,671 


1,162,253 

49,387,944 

1,247,083 


$304,094 

9,185,184 

1,068,109 

135,724 


7,842,022'$1,753,461 

63,784,313 11,010,693 

1,773,152 1,549,549 

1,089,440 


Total . . . 

Exports 

Butter, pounds . 
Cheese, pounds 
Condensed milk, 

pounds . . . 
Other milk and 

cream . . . 


6,092,235 
6,337,560 

20,642,738 


10,029,853 

1,468,432 
898,035 

1,651,879 

244,913 


3,585,600 
2,599,058 

16,525,918 


10,693,107 

872,804 
441,186 

1,432,848 

474,055 


3,693,597 
2,427,577 

16,209,082 


15,403,143 

877,453 
414,124 

1,341,140 

333,217 


Total . . . 




4,263,259 




3,220,893 




2,965,934 



Notes for Table 48, on Page 297 

1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1913, p. 487. 

2 No state standards. 

3 Federal rulings adopted. 

* Percentage of fat based on total solids. 

6 Fat, 7.8 per cent ; total solids plus fat, 34.3 per cent. 
^ For butter making, 25 per cent fat. 

^ This standard for sweetened condensed milk: "Evaporated milk," 
solids, 24 per cent ; fat, 7.8 per cent. 

* No report ; 1910 standard given. 
^ By weight. 

10 Not more than 0.2 per cent " filler." 

11 Must correspond to 11.5 per cent solids in crude milk. 

12 If artifically colored. 

1^ Must correspond to 12 per cent solids in crude milk. 

" 23-24 per cent solids, 7.9 per cent fat ; 24-25 per cent solids, 7.8 per 
cent fat ; 25-26 per cent solids, 7.7 per cent fat ; 26 per cent solids, 7.6 per 
cent fat. 

1^ In May and June, solids 12 per cent. 

" Fat, 27.5 per cent of total solids. 



APPENDIX 297 

Table 48. — -Legal Standards for Dairy Products^ 













^ 
J 






12: 


State 


Milk 


1 

m 


< 



05 


^0 


Condensed 
Milk 


< 
^^ 

I— 1 --^ 


< 5 

H « 
1— 1^^ 




^- 03 


OD.'S 




— m 








_ n 










03 T3 


-ofe 




OJ-uJ 








03^ 










-*^ *^ 


^ -f^ 


■4^ 


■^'^ 


-tj 


-tj 


+= 




4.2 


^ 


•^' 




p 





c3 


P 


S3 


c3 


03 


P'o 


o3 


c3 


ti 




Hcc 


cc c 


fe 


Per 


1^ 


fe 


^ 


hc» 


fc 


^ 


E^ 




Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 




Cent 


Cent 


Cent 


Cent 


Cent 


Cent 


Cent 


Cent 


Cent 


Cent 


Cent 


Alabama 2 . . . . 
























Arizona ^ . . . , 
























Arkansas ^ . . . . 
























California . . . . 


11.5 


8.5 


3.0 


8.8 


18.0 


8O.0" 


50* 


0) 


(^) 


12 




Colorado .... 






3.0 




16.0 6 


80.0 


50^ 






14 


12 


Connecticut . . . 


11.75 


8.5 


3.25 




16.0 














Delaware 2 . . . . 
























District of Columbia 


12.5 


9.0 


3.5 


9.3 


20.0 


83.0 












Florida .... 


11.75 


8.5 


3.25 


9.25 


18.0 


82.5 


50 4 128.0 7 


7.77 


12 




Georgia .... 


11.75 


8.5 


3.25 


9.25 


18.0 


82.5 


50 * J28.0 


27.66 * 


14 


12 


Hawaii ^ . . . . 


11.5 


8.5 


3.0 










28.0 


7.7 






Idaho 


11.2 


8.0 


3.2 


9.3 


18.0 


82.5 


30 


{') 


{') 


14 


12 


Illinois 


11.5 


8.5 


3.0 


9.25 


18.0 


82.5 


50 4 


{') 


{') 


8 




Indiana 




8.5 


3.25 


9.25 


18.0 


82.5 


50* 


28.0 


27.5* 


8 




Iowa 


12.0 




3.0 




16.0 


80.0 9 








12 




Kansas 


11.75 


8.5 


3.25 


9.25 


18.0 6 


80.0 


50* 


{') 


{') 


14 


12 


Kentucky . . . 


12.5 


8.5 


3.25 


9.25 


18.0 


82.5 


50* 


28.0 


27.66 * 


14 


12 


Louisiana .... 




8.5 


3.5 


8.0 


18.0 






(*) 


{') 






Maine 


11.75 


8.5 


3.25 




18.0 














Maryland 


12.5 




3.5 


9.25 


18.0 






(^) 


(^) 


4 


6 


Massachusetts 


12.15 




3.35 


9.3 


15.0 














Michigan .... 


12.5 




3.0 














12 




Minnesota . . . 


13.0 


9.75 


3.25 




20.0 




45* 


(^) 


e) 


12 




Mississippi 2 . . 
























Missouri . . . 


12.0 


8.75 


3.25 


9.25 


18.C 


82.5 


50* 


28.0 


7.76 


14 




Montana .... 


11.75 


8.5 


3.25 




20.0 


82.5 


50* 






14 




Nebraska .... 






3.0 




18.0 










14 


12 


New Hampshire 


12.0 






8.5 


18.0 


80.0 








1410 




New Jersey . . 


11.5 




3.0 




16.0 














New Mexico 2 . . 
























New York . . . 


11.5 




3.0 




18.0 






(") 


25.0* 






Nevada .... 


11.75 


8.5 


3.25 


9.25 


18.0 


82.5 


50* 


26.5 


7.8 


14 




North Carolina . 


11.5 


8.5 


3.25 


9.25 


18.0 


82.5 


50* 


28.0 


27.5* 


14 


12 


North Dakota . . 


12.0 


9.0 


3.0 




15.0 










14 




Ohio 


12.0 




3.0 






80.0 12 




(13) 


25.0* 






Oklahoma . . 


12.51 


9.5 


3.0 




18.0 


81.5 








14 




Oregon .... 




9.0 


3.2 




20.0 




30 


(14) 


(14) 


12 




Pennsylvania . . 


12.0 




3.25 




18.0 




32 






8 


6 


Porto Rico . . 


12.0 


9.0 


3.0 


















Rhode Island 


12.0 




2.5 


















South Carolina 2 . 
























South Dakota 




8.5 


3.25 


9.25 


18.0 


80.0 


50* 


28.0 


27.5* 


14 


]2 


Tennessee . . 




8.5 


3.50 


















Texas 




8.5 


3.25 


















Utah 


12.0 


9.0 


3.2 


9.0 


18.0 


80.0 


50* 


C*) 


{') 


14 


12 


Vermont .... 


12.5 15 


9.25 




















Virginia .... 


11.75 


8.5 


3.25 


9.25 


18.0 


82.5 




(^) 


Q') 


8 




Washington . . . 


12.0 


8.75 


3.25 


9.3 


18.0 




30 










West Virginia 2 . . 
























Wisconsin 




8.5 


3.0 


9.0 


18.0 


82.5 


50* 


28.0 


8.0 


14 




Wyoming .... 




8.5 


3.25 


9.25 


18.0 


82.5 


50* 


28.0 


(16) 


14 


12 



298 



APPENDIX 



Table 49. — Average Composition of Milk and its 

Products 



Skim-milk, gravity . 
Skim-milk, separator 
Buttermilk . . . 
Whey 



Wateb 



89.88 
90.60 
91.24 
93.04 



Ash 



.77 
.78 
.70 
.42 



Protein 



3.54 
3.57 
3.50 
0.84 



Sugar 



4.91 
4.95 
4.00 
5.34 



Fat 



0.90 
0.10 
0.56 
0.36 



Table 50. — Average Weights 



Product 


Weight in Pounds per Quart ^ 


Average milk 


2.15 


20 per cent cream 


2.10 


25 per cent cream 


2.09 


30 per cent cream 


2.08 


40 per cent cream 


2.01 


50 per cent cream 


1.97 



The Haecker Feeding Standard 
The feeding standard formulated by Prof. T. L. Haecker 
of the Minnesota Experiment Station ^ has found consider- 
able favor especially in the Middle West. This standard is 
based upon a long series of investigations concerning the 
requirements for maintenance and for the production of 
milk of varying richness. This standard has recently been 
modified by Savage in the direction of simplicity in form and 
some increase in the nutrients. 

This standard makes use of the total digestible nutrients 
and does not exclude the amide nitrogen as is done by Armsby. 

^ Calculated from the specific gravity of cream as given by Farrington 
and Woll, Testing Milk and its Products, 20th edition, p. 77. 

^ Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 69, 79, 130, 140. 



APPENDIX 



299 



This accounts mostly for the difference in protein require- 
ment and the larger amount of protein in the various feed- 
stuffs as shown in the table. 

This standard as modified by Savage is expressed in terms 
of digestible protein and total nutriment. The term " total 
nutriment " is applied to the sum of the digestible protein, 
the digestible carbohydrates, and the fat. The latter is 
multiphed by 2.25 to convert into its carbohydrate equiva- 
lent. The maintenance requirement is stated for each 100 
pounds live weight, and the amount necessary for the animal 
in question is then found by calculation, taking the weight 
of the animal into account. 



Maintenance Requirement 




Digestible Protein 
Pounds 


Total Digestible 
Nutriment, Pounds 


Per 100 lb. live weight 


.070 


.79 



For One Pound of Milk 



Per Cent Fat 


Digestible Protein 
Pounds 


Total Digestible 
Nutriment, Pounds 


3.0 


.057 


.29 


3.5 


.061 


.32 


4.0 


.065 


,.35 


4.5 


.069 


.38 


5.0 


.073 


.41 


5.5 


.077 


.43 


6.0 


.081 


.46 


6.5 


.085 


.49 



In using this standard the same plan of calculation is 
followed as explained for the Armsby standard. The main- 



300 



APPENDIX 



tenance requirement is first calculated, taking into account 
the size of the animal. To this is added the amount neces- 
sary to produce the milk, taking into account the amount and 
richness. For example, let it be assumed the problem is to 
calculate the ration for a 1150-pound cow producing 30 
pounds of 4.5 per cent milk daily. According to the pre- 
ceding statements the requirements would be as follows : 





Digestible Protein 

POUXDS 


Total Nutriment 


Maintenance 1150 lb. 
30 1b. 4.5% milk . . 


(.070 X 11.5) .81 
(30 X .069) 2.07 


(.79 X 11.5) 9.09 
(30 X 38) 11.40 


Total 


2.88 


20.49 



The ration to be fed will then be selected and calculated 
using the average composition of feeds as given in Table 51, 
making such changes and modifications as are seen to be 
necessary in order to bring the composition of the ration 
reasonably close to the standard. 

Table 51. — Dry Matter, Digestible Protein and Total 
Nutriment per 100 Pounds ^ 



Total Drt 

Matter 



Concentrates. 

Corn 

Sweet Corn . . . 
Corn-and-cob Meal 
Gluten Feed . . 
Gluten Meal . . 
Hominy Feed (chops) 
Germ Oil Meal . . 



89.4 
91.2 
84.9 
90.8 
90.5 
90.4 
91.4 



Digestible 
Protein 



7.8 

8.8 

4.4 

21.3 

29.7 

6.8 

15.8 



Total 

Nutriment 



84.3 
88.3 
70.9 
80.6 
85.9 
83.9 
78.8 



1 This table is adapted from Henry's " Feeds and Feeding," 10th edition, 
p. 582. 



APPENDIX 



301 





Total Dry 


Digestible 


Total 




Matter 


Protein 


Nutriment 


Corn Bran 


90.6 


6. 


69.2 


Wheat .... 




89.5 


8.8 


79.7 


Red-dog Flour . . 




90.1 


16.2 


80.8 


Wheat Middlings . 




88.8 


13. 


68.8 


Wheat Bran . . . 




88.1 


11.9 


59.5 


Rye 




91.3 


9.5 


81.6 


Rye Middlings . . 




88.2 


11. 


69.7 


Rye Bran .... 




88.4 


11.2 


62.0 


Barley 




89.2 


8.4 


77.3 


Oats 




89.6 


10.7 


69.5 


Oatmeal .... 




92.1 


11.9 


92.0 


Oat Middlings . . 




91.2 


13.1 


85.4 


Oat Hulls . . . 




92.6 


1.3 


41.2 


Buckwheat . . . 




86.6 


8.1 


61.7 


Buckwheat Middlings 




87.2 


22.7. 


73.7 


Buckwheat Hulls . . 




86.8 


1.2 


30.9 


Rice 




87.6 


6.4 


86.5 


Canada Field Pea . . 




85.0 


19.7 


69.9 


Cowpea 




85.4 


16.8 


74.2 


Soybean 




88.3 


29.1 


85.2 


Kafir Corn .... 




90.1 


5.2 


52.6 


Linseed Meal . . 




90.2 


30.2 


'77.7 


Cottonseed . '. . . 




89.7 


12.5 


81.4 


Cottonseed Meal . . 




93.0 


37.6 


80.6 


Cottonseed Hulls . 




88.9 


.3 


37.3 










Dried Brewers' Grains 


91.3 


20.0 


65.7 




23. 


4.9 


16.3 


Malt Sprouts .... 


90.5 


20.3 


69.4 


Dried Distillers' Grain 


92.4 


22.8 


88.6 


Wet Beet Pulp .... 


10.2 


.5 


8.2 


Dried Beet Pulp . . . 


91.6 


4.1 


69.0 


Sugar-beet Molasses . 


79.2 


4.7 


58.8 


Silage. 








Corn 


26.4 
23.9 


1.4 
0.1 


17.2 


Sorghum 


14.1 


Red Clover 


28.0 

25.8 


1.5 
2.7 


11.8 


Soybean 


15.2 


Cowpea Vine .... 


20.7 


1.5 


12.1 



302 



APPENDIX 



Dried Roughage. 

Fodder Com with Ears . 
Corn Stover, Ears removed 
Timothy . . . 
Orchard Grass . 
Redtop . . . 
Kentucky Bluegrass 
Bermuda Grass 
Johnson Grass . 
Barley .... 
Oat .... 
Hungarian Grass 
Prairie Grass 
Buffalo Grass 

Hay from Legumes and 
Mixed Legumes and 
Grasses. 
Red Clover . . 
Alsike Clover 
Crimson Clover 
Sweet Clover 
Soybean . . . 
Cowpea 

Alfalfa (western U. S.) 
Hairy (winter) Vetch 
Peanut Vine . . . 
Oat and Pea . . . 
Mixed Grasses and Clover 

Straw and Chaff. 

Wheat 

Rye 

Oat 

Barley 

Buckwheat 

Fresh Green Roughage. 
Green Corn and Sorghum- 
forage. 



Total Dry 
Matter 



57.8 
59.5 
86.8 
90.1 
91.1 
86.0 
92.9 
89.8 
85.0 
86.0 
86.Q 
90.8 
85.0 



84.7 
90.3 
90.4 
92.1 
88.2 
89.5 
93.2 
88.7 
92.4 
89.5 
87.1 



90.4 
92.9 
90.8 
85.8 
90.1 



Digestible 
Protein 



2.5 
1.4 
2.8 
4.9 
4.8 
4.4 
6.4 
2.9 
5.7 
4.7 
5.0 
3.0 
3.0 



7.1 

8.4 

10.5 

11.9 

10.6 

13.1 

11.1 

11.9 

6.7 

7.6 

5.8 



.8 
.7 

1.3 
.9 

1.2 



Total 
Nutriment 



39.8 
34.2 
48.1 
50.4 
53.9 
46.2 
54.9 
50.3 
51.6 
45.2 
54.4 
49.5 
48.6 



48.9 
50.6 
48.1 
49.7 
54.2 
49.1 
51.5 
56.2 
55.6 
52.4 
50.5 



36.9 
41.2 
42.6 
42.3 
39.7 



APPENDIX 



303 





Total Dry 


Digestible 


Total 




Matter 


Protein 


Nutriment 


Fodder, Corn, all 








Varieties .... 


20.7 


1.0 


13 8 


Sweet Varieties . . . 


20.9 


1.2 


14.7 


Fresh Green. Grasses . 






Pasture Grass . . . 


20. 


2.5 


13.7 
24.2 


Kentucky Blue-grass . 


34.9 


2.8 


Timothy 


38.4 


1.5 


22.7 


Orchard Grass . . . 


27.0 


1.2 


15.7 


Redtop in bloom . . 


34.7 


1.9 


24.3 


Wheat Forage . . 


22.7 


1.7 


14 6 


Rye Forage .... 


23.4 


2.1 


-1. Jt* v/ 

17.1 


Oat Forage, in Milk . 


37.8 


2.5 


22.9 


Barley Forage . . . 


21.0 


1.9 


12.9 


Johnson Grass . . . . 


25.0 


.6 


14 7 


Bermuda Grass . . , 


28.3 


1.3 


X A. 1 

15 6 


Common Millet . . 


20.0 


0.8 


12.3 


Fresh Green Legumes, 








Grasses and Legumes 








Combined. 








Red Clover 


29.2 


2.9 


19.3 


Alsike Clover 




25.2 


2.6 


15.1 


Crimson Clover 




19.1 


2.4 


12.6 


Sweet Clover 




20.0 


2.5 


11.8 


Alfalfa . . . 




28.2 


3.6 


16.6 


Cowpea . . . 




16.4 


1.8 


11.0 


Soybean . . , 




24.9 


3.1 


15.2 


Canada Field-pea 




15.3 


1.8 


9.4 


Roots and Tubers. 








Potatoes 


20.9 


1.1 


17.0 


Common Beet 






11.5 


1.2 


9.3 


Mangel . . 




. 


9.1 


1.0 


7.0 


Sugar Beet . 




. 


13.5 


1.3 


11.3 


Flat Turnip . . 






9.9 


.9 


7.5 


Carrot .... 






11.4 


.8 


9.2 


Rutabaga . . 


. . . 


11.4 


1.0 


9.5 


Miscellaneous. 








Dwarf Essex Rape . . 


14.3 


2.0 


10.6 


Cabbage 


10.0 


2.3 


8.4 


Field Pumpkins . . . 


9.1 


1.0 


7.3 



304 



APPENDIX 



Wing's Method of Balancing Rations 

A short method of balancing rations devised by H. H. 
Wing is practical and convenient. 

He divides the ordniary grains into three groups : low pro- 
tein (less than 12 per cent) ; medium protein (12 to 25 per 
cent) ; high protein (over 25 per cent). The figures given 
in the table are for the total and not the digestible protein. 

Table 52. — Wing's Method of Balancing Rations 



Low Protein Gi 


WUP 


Medium Protein Group 


High Protein Group 


Total Protein 12% 


or less 


Total Protein 12% to 25%, 


Total Protein 25% or more 


Corn 


. 10.3 


Wheat bran . . .15.4 


Malt sprouts .... 26.3 


Oats 


. 11.4 


Mixed wheat feed . 16.3 


Linseed oil meal . . . 33.9 


Wheat .... 


. 11.9 


Wheat middlings . 16.9 


Cottonseed meal . . . 45.3 


Rve 


. 11.3 


Cottonseed feed . 20.0 


Gluten feed .... 25.0 


Barley .... 


12.0 


Buckwheat feed . 18.3 


Brewers' dried grains . 25.0 


Buckwheat . . 


10.8 


Pea meal .... 20.2 


Distillers' dried grains 
(corn) 31.2 


Hominy chop 


. 10.5 


Cull beans . . .21.6 


Buckwheat middlings . 26.7 


Dried beet pulp 


. 8.1 






Corn-and-cob meal 


8.5 







Mixed hay, corn silage, and corn fodder are very similar 
in composition as far as the relation between the protein and 
carbohydrates is concerned. When roughage of this class 
is used, a grain mixture made by mixing equal parts by 
weight of one from each of the three groups will make a well- 
balanced ration. A dairy cow in full flow of milk should 
receive all the hay and silage she will eat and the grain mix- 
ture at the rate of one pound for each 3 or 3^ pounds of 
milk that she produces, if this milk be about the average 
composition of 4. percent. If the milk contains 3 to 3.5 
percent fat, 1 pound grain to 4 pounds of milk is sufficient. 
If alfalfa hay is used the high protein feed is not necessary. 



APPENDIX 



305 



Table 53. — Average Weights of Different Feeding-Stuffs ^ 



Feeding Stuff 



Barley meal 

Barley, whole 

Brewers' dried grains . . 
Corn-and-eob meal . 
Corn-and-oat feed . 

Corn, bran 

Corn meal 

Corn, whole 

Cottonseed meal .... 
Distillers' grains, dried 
Germ oil meal .... 

Gluten feed 

Gluten meal 

Hominy meal 

Linseed meal, new process 
Linseed meal, old process 

Malt sprouts 

Oats, ground 

Oats, whole 

Rye bran . ... . . 

Rye meal 

Rye, whole 

Wheat bran 

Wheat, ground 
Wheat middlings (flour) . 
Wheat middlings (standard) 
Wheat, whole .... 



One Quart 


One Pound 


Weighs 


Measures 


Pounds 


Quarts 


1.1 


0.9 


1.5 


0.7 


0.6 


1.7 


1.4 


0.7 


0.7 


1.4 


0.5 


2.0 


1.5 


0.7 


1.7 


0.6 


1.5 


0.7 


0.5-0.7 


1.0-1.4 


1.4 


0.7 


1.3 


0.8 


1.7 


0.6 


1.1 


0.9 


0.9 


1.1 


1.1 


0.9 


0.6 


1.7 


0.7 


1.4 


1.0 


1.0 


0.6 


1.8 


1.5 


0.7 


1.7 


0.6 


0.5 


2.0 


1.7 


0.6 


1.2 


0.8 


0.8 


1.3 


2.0 


0.5 



Rules for Measuring Feed 
Measuring Grain. A bushel of grain contains approxi- 
mately f cubic feet. To find the capacity of a bin, find the 
number of cubic feet and multiply by |, or multiply by 8 
and divide by 10. 

Measuring Ear Corn. Two bushels of ears are ordinarily 
required to make one bushel of grain. To find the capacity 

1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 222. 
X 



306 



APPENDIX 



of a crib, find the number of cubic feet and multiply by |, or 
multiply by 4 and divide by 10. Seventy pounds of ear 
corn is ordinarily called a bushel. 

Measuring Straw. Few weights of straw have been re- 
ported. The writer measured and weighed two barns full 
of settled wheat straw. The mows were 14 feet deep, 1200 
cubic feet were required for one ton. 

Measuring Hay. Some kinds of hay are heavier than 
others. The deeper the mow or stack and the longer it has 
stood, the heavier the hay is per cubic foot. Of course the 
bottom of a mow is much heavier than the top. Usually 
about 500 cubic feet of settled hay are counted as one ton. 

A barn 30 X 60 feet and 16 feet from floor to top of the 
plate, and having the peak 9 feet above the plate, was filled 
as full as possible with timothy hay and refilled after a few 
days. This hay was baled by the writer about five months 
later. It weighed 51|^ tons. On another year it weighed 
51 tons. A barn 30 X 42 feet and 16 feet from floor to top 
of plate, with peak 9 feet above the plate, was similarly filled, 
and baled out 32.75 tons. 

Capacity of Silos. King gives the weight of a cubic foot 
of silage at different depths two days after filling, as follows : ^ 



Depth 


Weight per Cubic 
Foot 


Average Weight to this 
Depth 


Feet 


Pounds 


Pounds 


1 


19 


19 


10 


33 


26 


20 


46 


33 


30 


56 


40 


36 


61 


43 



1 Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 59. 



INDEX 



Aberdeen-Angus, 37. 
Abortion, 155. 
Advanced registry, 64, 133. 
Age and production, 66. 
Alfalfa, 106, 224. 
Animal unit, defined, 218. 

acres per, 278. 
Ash, 95. 
Associations, breeders, 289. 

cow- testing, 61. 
Ayrshire, 27. 

no. registered, 17. 

Babcock milk test, 58, 196. 
Balanced rations, 97, 131, 298, 304. 
Barns, 82, 139. 

costs of, 147, 266. 
Beef, breeds, 37. 

from dairy cattle, 5, 20. 
Beet pulp and molasses, 109. 
Bitter milk, 88. 
Blackleg, 163. 
Bloat, 162. 
Bloody milk, 87. 
Breeders' associations, 289. 
Breeds, beef, 14, 37. 

classification of, 14. 

dairy, 14. 

dual purpose, 14, 31. 

milk of various, 173. 

origin of, 12. 

production of various, 42, 66. 

selection of, 40. 
Brewers' grains, 109. 
Brown Swiss, 30. 
Bull, management of, 91. 

selection of, 69. 
Butter, ash in, 2. 

compared with beef, 2. 

energy in, 2. 

imports and exports, 296. 

legal standards, 297. 

making, 182. 



prices by months, 217. 

production per capita, 4. 

protein in, 2. 

regions of production, 209. 

season of production, 215. 
Butter-fat, 59, 196. 

factors affecting amount of, 172. 
Buttermilk, composition of, 298. 

Calf raising, 112. 

scours, 160. 
Calving, care at, 90. 
Canada pea, 106. 

Capital and amount of stock, 277. 
Cattle, origin of, 12. 
Centralizer, 192. 
Certified milk, 181. 
Cheese, ash in, 2. 

compared with beef, 2. 

energy in, 2. 

imports and exports, 296. 

legal standards, 297. 

making, 192. 

production per capita, 4. 

protein in, 2. 

regions of production, 209, 211. 

season of production, 215, 216. 
Churning, 187. 
Climate, 203, 215. 
Clover, 106, 224. 
Condensed milk, 193. 

imports and exports, 296. 
Condimental feeds. 111. 
Corn, 107. 

silage, 107, 221. 

stover, 106. 
Corn-stalk disease, 165. 
Costs of production, 246. 
Cqttonseed meal, 108. 
Cows, compared with other animals, 
7. 

numbers of, 6. 

size of, 271. 



307 



308 



INDEX 



Cowpea, 106, 224. 
Cowpox, 162. 

cow-testing associations, 61. 
Cream, imports and exports, 296. 

legal standards, 297. 

separation, 185. 

weight of, 298. 
Creameries, 191. 
Crimson clover, 106. 
Crop rotations, 225. 

yields, 274. 

acres per horse, 264. 

acres per man, 261. 

cash, 227, 276. 
Cropping systems, 225. 
Crossbreeding, 13, 74. 
Crude fiber, 95. 

Dairy products, receipts from, 10. 

Dehorning, 81. 

Devon, 36. 

Diversified farming, 227, 276, 279. 

Drenching a cow, 152. 

Drying up a cow, 89, 124. 

Dual purpbse, 14, 31. 

Dutch Belted, 30. 

Ether extract, 95. 

Feeding standards, 97, 298, 304. 
Feeds, 104, 300, 304, 305. 

condimental. 111. 

costs of, 246. 

digestibility, 96. 

effect on milk, 176. 

energy- in, 104. 

mixed, 110. 

production values of, 96. 

returned in manure, 231. 

uses of, 94. 

weights of, 305. 
Fertility of feed in manure, 231. 
Flies, 79. 
Floors of barns, 141. 

Galloway, 38. 
Garget, 158. 
Gluten, 109. 
Grade, defined, 13. 
Guernsey, 24. 

no. registered, 17. 



Gutters, 144. 

Hsecker feeding standard, 298. 
Hay, weight of, 306. 
Heifers, feeding, 120. 
cost of raising, 250. 
Hereford, 37. 
Holstein, 17. 

Ice cream, legal standards, 297. 
Inflammation of the udder, 158. 

Jersey, 21. 

number registered, 17. 

Kaffir poisoning, 164. 
Kerry, 30. 
Kicking cows, 88. 

Labor costs, 246, 248. 
Labor income, 259. 
Legal standards, 297. 
Legumes, 106, 224. 
Lice, 161. 

Light for barns, 140. 
Linseed meal, 109. 

Maintenance requirements, 299. 
Mangers, 144. 
Manure, 9, 230. 

amount produced, 230. 

application of, 235. 

losses of, 232. 

value of, 231, 234. 
Marketing, 253. 
Marking cattle, 82. 
Meat from dairy cattle, 5, 20. 
Milk, ash in, 2. 

bitter, 88. 

certified, 181. 

color of, 171. 

compared with beef, 2. 

composition of, 168. 

condensed, 193. 

consumed per capita, 4. 

cost of, 246. 

energy in, 2. 

fever, 153. 

flour, 194. 

from different animals, 172. 

inspection, 5. 



INDEX 



309 



legal standards, 297. 

prices by months, 217. 

records, 58. 

sanitary, 177. 

substitutes, 117. 

sugar, 170. 

testing, 59, 196. 

value as food, 1. 

veins, 51. 

weight of, 298. 

wells, 51. 
Milking, methods of, 83, 84. 

machines, 86. 
Mixed feeds, 110. 
Molasses, 109. 

Nitrogen-free extract, 95. 

Oats, 108. 
OU meal, 109. 

Pasture, 126, 224. 

feeding grain on, 127. 
Pedigrees, 15. 
Polled Durham, 34. 
Population of the United States, 3. 
Production values of feeds, 96. 
Profits, factors affecting, 258. 
Protein, 95. 
Pulse, normal, 150. 
Pure bred, defined, 13. 

Rations, calculating, 100. 
Red Polled, 34. 
Registry, advanced, 64. 

number of animals in, 17. 
Renting dairy farms, 240. 
Respiration, normal, 151. 
Rotations, crop, 225. 

Salt, 123. 

Sanitary milk, 177. 

Score cards, 53, 77, 290. 

Scours, 160. 

Selection, individual, 42. 

of a breed, 40. 

of a bull, 69. 



Shelter, 82. 
Shorthorn, 32. 
Silage, 107, 221. 
Silo, capacity of, 306. 
Skim-milk, composition of, 298. 

for calves, 112. 

value as food, 2, 254. 
Soiling crops, 223. 
Soils for dairying, 274. 
Sorghum poisoning, 164. 
Stalls, 144. 
Stanchions, 145. 
Straw, weight of, 306. 
Strippings, 176. 
Successful farms, 242, 281. 
Succulent feed, 132. 

Teats, chapped, 88. 

leaky, 87. 
Temperature, normal, 151. 
Tenure of dairy farms, 240. 
Ties, 145. 
Timothy hay, 106. 
Topography, 203. 
Transportation and dairying, 208. 
Tuberculosis, 156. 

Udder, 50. 

inflammation of, 158. 

Variations, extent of, 44. 
Veal production, 119. 
Ventilation, 146. 
Vetch, 106, 224. 

Water for cows, 125. 

in feed, 95. 
Weights of feeds, 305. 
Wheat bran, 107. 

middlings, 108. 
Whey, 298. 

Wing's feeding standard, 304. 
Wolff-Lehmann feeding standard, 

99. 
Work units, 263. 



Printed in the United States of America. 



npHE following pages contain advertisements of a 
few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects 



Animal Husbandry for Schools 



By MERRITT W. HARPER 

Associate Professor of Animal Husbandry in the New York State College of 
Agriculture at Cornell University 



Cloth, 121710, ill. ^og pages. $1.40 

To meet the demand for a book on Animal Husbandry- 
suitable for use by students of high school age this book has 
been written, and in content, style, and arrangement it is 
admirably adapted to the purpose. It belongs to the Rural 
Textbook Series prepared under the editorial supervision of 
Professor L. H. Bailey of Cornell University. 

In the five parts into which the book is divided the author 
treats of horses, cattle, sheep, swine, and poultry, and each 
is discussed with reference to breeds, judging the animal, 
feeding, and care and management. There is also a chapter 
on the general principles of feeding. Practical questions and 
numerous laboratory exercises supplement the text and 
compel the student to think through each subject as he 
proceeds. The book is extensively illustrated. Designed 
for use as a textbook, it is also well suited for use as a refer- 
ence book in schools in which time limitations make it 
impossible to use it as a text. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



Warren's Elements of Agriculture 

By G. F. WARREN, Professor of Farm Management and 
Farm Crops, New York State College of Agriculture at Cor- 
nell University 

Cloth, i2mo, 4^6 pages, $i.io 

Written by Professor G. F. Warren, who is in charge of the Department of 
Farm Management and Farm Crops in the New York State College of Agri- 
culture, Cornell University, an authority on questions pertaining to practical 
agriculture. 

Professor Warren is, moreover, a farmer. He grew up on a farm in the mid- 
dle West and is living at the present time on a farm of three hundred and 
eighteen acres, which he supervises in connection with his work at the Univer- 
sity. 

The " Elements of Agriculture " is a text that does not " talk down " to the 
pupil. It gives agriculture rank beside physics, mathematics, and the languages, 
as a dignified subject for the course of study. 

In Warren's "Elements of Agriculture " there is no waste space. It is writ- 
ten with the ease that characterizes a writer at home in his subject, and it is 
written in a style pedagogically correct. The author has been a teacher of high 
school boys and girls and knows how to present his subject to them. 

Experts in the teaching of agriculture the country over have been unanimous 
in praise of the text. For instance : 

Mr. J. E. Blair, Supt. of Schools, Corsicana, Texas : 

"An examination of Warren's ' Elements of Agriculture' convinces me that 
it is a book of uncommon merit for secondary schools as well as for the private 
student. It is thoroughly scientific in matter, and is written in an attractive 
style, that cannot fail to please as well as instruct." 

Supt. E. S. Smith, Whiting, Iowa : 

" I am very much pleased with Warren's ' Elements of Agriculture.' In my 
opinion it is the only book on the market that presents the work of agriculture 
suitably for high schools; too many books are too simple and do not give 
enough work ; a book for high schools must be more than a primer." 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



Field Crop Production 

By GEORGE LIVINGSTON 

Assistant Professor of Agronomy, Ohio State University 

Cloth, ismo, illustrated, xix + ^34 pages, $1.40 

This is one of the excellent books of the Rural Text- 
book Series, edited by Professor Liberty Hyde Bailey. 

After an introductory view of the whole field of plant 
life and crop rotation, there are twenty chapters on dif- 
ferent crops, for example, corn, wheat, oats, barley, rye, 
rice, buckwheat, perennial grasses, annual grasses, clovers, 
alfalfa, root crops, fibre crops, etc. There is a chapter 
also on marketing grain. ' 

The book is simple and non-technical in style and in- 
tensely practical, the topics treated being those of immedi- 
ate interest and profit to students who expect to become 
actual farmers. It points out the ''better way" of raising 
farm crops, of selecting the field, of preparing the soil, of 
sowing the seed, of cultivating the plant, of harvesting the 
crop. It tells what causes hard and soft wheats, how to 
prevent smut in the corn crops, and about reseeding old 
meadows and pastures. The appendix contains references 
for outside reading and review questions for each chapter. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



Principles of Agronomy 

By J. S. HARRIS and GEORGE STEWART 

Utah Agricultural College 
Clothy i2mo, illustrated, 430 pages', List price, $1.40 

The " Principles of Agronomy " deals with the practices 
that underlie success in crop production and will be wel- 
comed by those schools that emphasize, in the agriculture 
course, the field crop studies. The student is introduced 
in this book to the four elements that will affect his suc- 
cess in raising crops for market. First, the nature of the 
plant and its activities; then, the composition of soils; 
next, the characteristics of the principal field crops and 
details regarding their cultivation and care ; finally, the 
principles of farm management When one has surveyed 
the subject from these four points of view he has a clear 
idea of what is involved in the practical problem of crop 
production. He sees that results are determined by the 
character of the plant, by the soil, and by the manage- 
ment as well as by the crops themselves. 

The book will appeal to the practical man whether he 
be student or farmer. It deals with conditions as they 
are, and discusses practical problems that involve both 
principles and applications : 

What shading does to plants; Hozv to modify soils ; 
When to irrigate ; How to p7'event potato diseases ; etc. 

The book is comprehensive and well organized. It is, 
moreover, well written and attractively illustrated. It is a 
good story well told. 

Lists of supplementary readings, provided at the ends 
of chapters, permit of extension of the course into any 
field of special local interest. The appendix contains ref- 
erence material, tables, rules, glossary, etc. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



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